


LIBRAP' ONGRESS. 

DNITI F AMERICA, j 



FIRST CIRCLE 



English Grammar, 



BEGINNEE8. 

'BY 

Ti R. VICKROY. 



Activity is a law of childhood; therefore accustom the child to do. 

— Pestalozzi 

Practice always precedes theory. We do the thing before we understand why 
we do it. — Agassiz. 



SAINT LOUIS : 

PUBLISHED BY THE POLYTECHNIC PUBLISHING COMPANY. 

1875. 






Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 18?5, by 

THE POLYTECHNIC PUBLISHING COMPANY 

Of Saint Louis, 

In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 



Preface, 



The following is the first of a series of little books designed to treat 
the subject of Grammar inductively and synthetically. In its widest 
sense, grammar treats of the elements of language, and hence its study 
begins with the first day of the child's school life. 

Two objects are sought in language culture : I. To enable the pupil 
to express his own thoughts, and 2. To enable him to gain knowledge 
from what others have written. 

School instruction usually begins with the study of letters. The 
child, in learning to read and spel], learns words and grasps the notions 
which they express. He thus learns the use of language before he 
studies the principles on which it is based. While this process is 
going on, the habit of correct speaking should be cultivated. Every 
error should be corrected when it occurs, nor should this be postponed 
to a later period. 

When the child begins the Fourth Reader, he is capable of reflecting 
on the forms he has been accustomed to use. His powers have been 
so far developed that he may begin a systematic study of language. 

This Circle is designed to conduct him through the first stage of this 
technical study. At first a few principles only are presented and eluci- 
dated. That these may be thoroughly fixed in the mind, ample drills 
are prepared with suggestions by which the teacher can extend them 
-is far as may be deemed necessary. The principle of this book is the 
minimum of statement and the maximum of exercise. This will give 
concreteness to the instruction, and prevent the cramming of the mem- 
ory with incomprehensible statements. 

The pupil must learn how to express his own thoughts — he must 
learn the use of oral and of written language. As the exercises are to 
be prepared in writing, the pupil will learn practical composition. He 
learns how to express thought and how to clothe it in its accustomed 
forms. Capitals and punctuation marks are learned and fixed by suit- 



4 Preface. 

able exercises, and then their use is continually required in the follow- 
ing exercises. Thus the pupil will learn, in a practical way, the gram- 
matical, lexical and rhetorical elements of the language, and at the, 
same time, he will have gained a cultured power. 

The historical element of the language will receive the care its im- 
portance demands. In the earlier Circles, English and German will be 
compared for two reasons : 

i. These languages have a common origin, both being Teutonic or 
Gothic, and 2. The English is so extensively studied by Germans that 
the labor of acquiring either language will be lessened, if all techni- 
cal terms are identified and the agreements and differences are clearly 
pointed out. The comparison itself is of great educational value, espe- 
cially as a preparation for the study of literature. 

While the method of the Circles is inductive and synthetic, the analy- 
sis of thought will not be overlooked. Since language is the product 
of the discursive faculty and this faculty has its laws of action, it is evi- 
dent that the elements of language may be reduced to a few funda- 
mental types. Beginning with subject and predicate, element after 
element will be introduced until sentences of th most involved struc- 
ture are fully mastered. 

From this it will be seen, that the author has attempted to unify the 
prominent tendencies ot the age, by combining the prominent features 
of each. 

On the psychological side, the plan and arrangement, it is believed, 
will accord with the laws which govern mental development. 

Mr. Thomas Davidson has read the MSS. and proofs, and has 
made many valuable suggestions. 

The Table of Contents will best exhibit tne plan of the book. 
St Louis Azig. 1875. 



Table of Contents. 



CHAPTER I. The Sentence and its Parts. (Page 9-16.) 

I. Principles Elucidated. Page. 

i. Objects {Gegenstdnde) 9 

2. Objects and Words {Gegenstdnde und Wo rter) io 

3. The Sentence {Der Satz) , 10-11 

4. The Parts of the Sentence {Die Glieder des Satzes) 11 

5. The Subject {Das Subjekt) 11-12 

6. The Predicate* {Dar Pr&dikat) 12 

II. Practical Drills. 

1. Marking the subjectand predicate 12-13 

2. Filling Blanks , 13 

3. Composing Sentences with a given subject 13 

4. Composing Sentences with a given predicate 13 

5. Composing Sentences of given words 13 

6. Marking Sentences having limited subjects 14 

7. Marking Sentences having limited predicates. 14 

8. Marking Sentences having both members limited 14 

9. Marking transposed Sentences 15 

10, Marking selections from Reader..,.* 16 



6 Table of Contents. 

Page. 
CHAPTER II. Kinds of Sentences (Satzarten). (17-21.) 

I. Prin-ciples Elucidated. 

i. Sentences presented 17 

2. Inferences drawn , 17 

3. Sentences defined, viz : - 

{a). The Declarative sentence {Der Erzahlsatz) 18 

{b). The Conditional sentence {Der Bedingungsatz) 18 

{c). The Imperative sentence {Der Befehlssatz) 18 

{d). The Interrogative sentence {Der Fragesatz) 18 

{e). The Exclamative sentence {Der Ausrufesatz) 19 

II. Practical Drills. 

1. Telling the kind of sentence 19 

2. Changing given sentences into the other kinds 20 

3. Separating given extracts into sentences 21 

CHAPTER IH. Punctuation {Zeichenseizung). (22-24.) 

I. Principles Elucidated. 

1. The use of the Period ( Der Punkt) 22 

2. The use of the Interrogation Point {Das Fragezeichen) 23 

3 . The use of the Exclamation Point {Das Ausrufungszeichen) 23 

II. Practical Drills. . 

1. Punctuating given sentences , 24 

2. Punctuating given extracts 24 

2. Punctuating extracts to be dictated 24 

CHAPTER IV. Capitals (Grosse Anfangsbuchstaben). (25-28.) 

1. Seven simple rules for Capitals 25 

2. Exercises on these rules 26 

3. Correcting a letter. 26-27 

4. Correcting given extracts 27 

5. Correcting sentences to be dictated 27-28 

6. Writing lists of geographical names 28 

7 . Writing paragraphs dictated from Reader 28 



Table of Contents. 7 

Pages. 
CHAPTER V. The Noun {Das Namenwort). (29-34 ) 

Review of principles and general divisions 29 

1. Words denoting objects defined 30 

2. Five exercises in naming objects 3 I_ 3 2 

3. The recognition of Nouns, viz : 

{a). In given sentences , ^ 

{b). In selections from Reader 43 



CHAPTER VI. The Verb {Das Thatigkeitswort).* (35-39.) 

1. The energies of objects 35-37 

2. Naming of words denoting the energies of objects 37~38 

3. The recognition of Verbs, viz 

{a.) In given sentences 38-39 

{&.) In selections from Reader 39 



CHAPTER VII. Adjectives {Eigenschaftswdrter). (40-43.) 

1. Words denoting the qualities of objects 40-41 

2. Words denoting qualities defined 42 

3. The recognition of Adjectives, viz 

{a.) In given sentences « 42-43 

{b.) In selections from Reader. 43 



CHAPTER Vm. Words and Syllables ( W'orter und 
Silben). (44-46.) 

1. Words defined 44 

2. Syllables defined. Exercises 44 

3. Words classed by Syllables. Exercises 45-46 



CHAPTER IX. Letters {Buchstaben). (47.) 

1. Forms of Letters 47 

2. Vowels and Consonants. Exercises 47 



Table of Contents. 

Pages. 
CHAPTER X. Sounds (Laute). (48-50.) 

1. Vowel- sounds and Consonant-sounds 48 

2. Classification of Vowels, viz 

(a.) Primitive vowels {reine Selbstlaute) 48 

(3.) Derivative vowels, {Umlaute) 49 

(f.) Diphthongs, (Doppellaute) 50 

3. Exercises 50 

CHAPTER XI. Quantity of Vowels {Deknung und 
Scharfung). (51-52.) 

1. Long and Short Vowels. Exercises 51 

2. How Long Vowels are noted 52 

3. How Short Vowels are noted. Exercise 52 

CHAPTER XII. Consonants {Mitlaute). (53-60.) 

1. Semi-vowels and Aspirates. Exercise 53 

2. Trills. Exercise 54 

3. Nasals. Exercise 54 

4. Explosives. Exercise 55 

5. Continuants. Exercise 56-57 

6. Correlatives. Rules. Exercise 58 

7. Miscellaneous exercises 59 

8. Test Exercises for Review 60 



CHAPTEK I. 

The Sentence and its Parts 

(Der Satz und seine Mntheilung). 



1. Objects (Gegenstdnde). 

Jg^Let the teacher call attention to the things in the 
school room; for instance, let her point to the desk 
and ask — 

How do you know that this desk is here? [J can see 
it, and I can touch it.'] Tap the bell. A sound will be 
heard, Take an apple. It may be tasted. A flower 
may be smelt. Now ask such questions as these : 
What things can you see ? What things can you hear ? 
What things can you touch f What things can you smell ? 
What things can you taste ? 

Is there anything that you cannot see, hear, touch, 
taste or smell ? Yes. There are things which I can 
THINK. I can THINK things, such as nothing, no- 
body, something, power, truth, wisdom, goodness, etc. B3 
what means may we know objects ? [Through our senses 
or through our understanding.'] Hence — 

Definition. — Anything that we can see, hear, 

touch, taste, smell or think, is called an Object 

(Gegenstand). 

Exercise {TJebung). 

S^° Let the pupil write the names of five objects he 
can see, hear, touch, taste, smell, think. 



10 Mrst Circle in English Grammar. 

2. Objects and Words (Gegenstdnde unci Wortef). 

Jt^Let the teacher take a rubber and erase some- 
thing from the black board. Ask: What does the rubber 
dot {The rubber rubs out, or erases.} Let the pupils 
write this sentence on their slates. After all have writ- 
ten it carefully, let the teacher write it on the board, 
and ask her pupils what the crayon does? (The crayon 
marks.) Let this sentence be written as before. 

Now let the teacher ask Where is the rubber ? Where 
is the chalk? From such examples and such questions 
the difference between an object and a word may be 
clearly brought out. 

Let the teacher continue this exercise until the dis- 
tinction between an object and a word is clearly 
apprehended by her class. Words relate to objects. 
In the sentence Trees grow, both words relate to trees. 
So in any group of words. The various elements of 
an object are pressed out (ausgedruckt) into words. 
Hence — 

Definition. — A Word is what is spoken or 
written to denote an object^ or to express something 
about it. 

3. The Sentence (Der Satz). 

j^» Let the teacher write several sentences on the 
board. 

Exercise ( TJebung). 

Henry writes. Charles laughs. Mary plays. George 
reads. William jumps. Birds sing. 

jj®* These words denote objects, and tell something about 
them. 



First Circle in English Grammar. 11 

Model. — " Henry writes." In these words something 
is said of Henry. It is said that he writes. 

Each sentence should be analyzed in this way. 

Remark. — We think objects as acting, as in some condition, but when 
we come to formulate our thought in language, we expand it into two or 
more words. A Sentence is a thought expressed in words. The object 
supplies the matter, but the mind thinks it into form. Hence — 

Definition. — A Sentence is a word or com- 
bination of words in which something is said of 
an object. 

4. The Parts of the Sentence (Die Glieder des 
Satzes). 



In every sentence there are two parts, viz: 

1. The word or words denoting the object about 
which something is said. 

2. The word or words expressing what is said 
of the object. 

Exercise ( Uebung) II. 

Birds fly. Squirrels frisk. Babbits burrow. 

Frogs leap. Eagles soar. Serpents hiss. 

Bears growl. Doves coo. Cattle graze. 

Model.—" Birds fly." Birds denotes the object about 
which something is said. Fly expresses what is said of 
these objects. 

5. The Subject (Das Subjekt). 

The word or words denoting the object about which 
something is said, is called the Subject. Hence — 

Definition. — The Subject is the word or 
words denoting the object about which some- 
thing is said, 



12 First Circle in English Grammar. 

Exercise ( Uebung) II. 

Kites fly. Kittens play. Balls bounce. 

John talks. Sarah sings. Emma cries. 

Model. — "Kites fly." Kites is the Subject, because 
this word denotes the object about which something is 
said. 

J^g^ Be careful to associate the words subject and 
object about which something is said. 

b\ The Predicate (Das Prddikat). 

JS^^The word or the group of words which assert 
[say, tell,] something about an object, is called the Pre- 
dicate. Hence — 

Definition. — The Predicate is the word or 
words which assert [say, tell,] something about 
an object. 

Exercise (Uebung) II. 

George draws. Emile reads. Frank walks. 

James studies. Mollie sings. Maggie plays. 

Model. — " George draws." Draws is the predicate, 
because this word asserts something about the object 
George. 

j^g" 2 * Be careful to associate the words Predicate and 
asserts something about an object. 

Exercise (Uebung) IY. 

8^~Copy the following sentences, and mark the subject 
and predicate by drawing a single line under the subject, and 
a double line under the predicate : — 

Model. — Boys play. 



First Circle in English Grammar. 13 

1. Crows croak. 5. Girls laugh. 9. Horses neigh. 

2. Birds sing. 6. James hides. 10. It snows. 

3. Children romp. 7. Clara sings. 11. We walk. 

4. George skates. 8. Jane dances. 12. Yon talk. 

Note to the Teacher —Let your pupils prepare their exercises on 
paper, and, after correction, write them in exercise books. 

Exercise ( Uebung) Y. 

&^- Complete the following sentences, writing them neatly 
on paper and marking the subject and predicate. 

1 reads. 5. Harry 9. Percy 

2. Boys 6 sleeps. 10. Birds 

3 play. 7 runs. 11. Horses 

4. Girls 8 talk. 12 sings. 

Exercise ( Uebung) VI. 

&®~ Form sentences, using the following words as subjects, 
writing them and marking them as before. 

Apples, oranges, melons, houses, cars, bridges, geese, 
oxen, mules, sheep, wagons, horns, toys, dolls. 

Exercise ( Uebung) YIL 

J8&* Form sentences, using the following words as predi- 
cates, writing them and marking as in Ex. V. 

Yells, crow, whistle, hiss, run, talk, write, bellow, 
squeal, wave, roil, fly, study, romp, play. 

Exercise {Uebung) YIII. 

S®* Form sentences, using the following words only : 
Eead, sing, birds, boys, cry, children, swim, fly, kites, 

fishes, hiss, bite, snakes, dogs, chirp, tick, crickets, 

clocks, prance, horses, balk, jump, mules. 



14 First Circle in English Grammar. 

Exercise {TJebung') IX. 



The subject may consist of two or more words. 
Model. — Three very interesting children came. 



1. The old hollow tree fell. 

2. The beautiful new sled broke. 

3. The grand old ocean roars. 

4. His three pleasant friends left. 

§. My teacher's youngest daughter came. 

6. The beautiful spring flowers wither. 

7. Her pretty new hat blew off. 

8. All his good pupils study. 

9. The four daring robbers ran away. 
10. His two thousand peach trees blossom. 

Exercise {TJebung) X. 

J8@~ The -predicate may consist of two or more words. 
Model. — The tree bore twenty bushels of apples. 



1. He received three splendid presents. 

2. I bought six new school books. 

3. Boys love stories about Indians. 

4. G-irls are fond of dolls and hoops. 

5. We saw the boys flying their kites. 

6. Ships roam over the wild oceans. 

Exercise {TJebung) XI. 

j^aT* Copy and mark the following sentences. 

1. Every good boy studies diligently. 

2. My mother gave me two large apples. 
8. Three grey foxes ran across the fields. 

4. I bought a beautiful new toy. 

5. A very young child was lost in the woods. 

6. The floating ice lodged on the island. 



First Circle in English Grammar. 15 

ModeIt. — u A good boy studies diligently." 



A good boy is the subject, because these words denote 
the object about which something is said. " Studies 
diligently" is the predicate, because these words assert 
something about the object boy. 

j®~ Mark and analyze all the sentences in the same way. 

Exercise {TJebung) XII. 

V®* Copy, mark and analyze the following sentences. 
Read an entire sentence, and let pupils write from dictation. 

1. The monkey is a very curious little animal. 

2. He is exceedingly fond of mischief. 

3. A monkey was once given to a lady as a present. 

4. Monkeys are very apt to imitate people. 

6. This lady had given her little daughter a doll. 

6. One day the monkey undertook to wash it. 

7. At first he rubbed it all over with soap. 

8. Afterwards he rubbed it with a towel. 

9. Thus the doll's face was entirely spoiled. 

Rhmark.— The teacher should note the peculiarity ol the last four sen- 
tences, the subject being placed between the parts of the predicate. 

Exercise (Uebung) XIII. 

S®* As the subject is frequently placed after the predicate, 
or between its parts, it is necessary to drill pupils carefully 
upon transposed sentences. These two questions should be 
asked and applied with each sentence : What words denote 
the object about which something is said ? What words 
assert something about the object ? 

1. Mine are the gardens of earth and sea. 

2. The stars themselves have flowers for me. 

3. The defeat of the enemy is certain. 

4. Gold and silver have I none. 



16 First Circle in English Grammar. 

5. Low was our pretty cot. 

6. A sacred thing is that old arm chair. 

7. That beautiful Turkish carpet is new. 

8. Peter's wife's mother lay sick of a fever. 

9. Never before did I see her look so pale. 

10. There were about twenty persons present. 

11. Slowly and sadly we laid him down. 

12. There is a melancholy music in autumn. 
Model. — Thus ebbs and flows the current of her life. 



There is a God. 



Ask, what words constitute the subject ? Why ? 
What words constitute the predicate ? Why ? 

Exercise (Uebung) XIV. 

Mark the subjects and predicates in the following 
extract : 

The lion is from three to four feet high, and from 
six to nine feet long. His strength is very great. By 
a single stroke of his paw, he can break the skull of a 
horse. A large lion can drag off an ox. The color of 
the lion is a yellowish red. He roams about in the 
forests of Asia and Africa, and is a terror to man and 
beast. If the lion is taken young, he can be tamed. 
He will even show marks of kindness to his keepers. 
But it is dangerous folly to get into his power. 

Exercise (Uebung) XV. 

JS^ The pupil should now be required to select the 
subjects and predicates in sentences in the reading les- 
son. If the foregoing drill has been thorough, this will 
aid him in grasping the thought of the selections he 
reads. 



First Circle in English Grammar. 17 



CHAPTER II. 
Kinds of Sentences (Satzarten) 



Let the teacher write the following sentences on 
board : 

1. The bird sings. The bird may sing. 

2. If the bird sing, he is valuable. 

3. Let the bird sing. 

4. Does the bird sing? 

5. How the bird sings ! 

JB^ The pupils should now be led to make the following 
inferences : 

1. The words, "The bird sings," "The bird may 

sing," state something as actual or possible. 

2. The words, " If the bird sing, he is valuable," state 

something as depending on something else. 

3. The words, " Let the bird sing," express a com- 

mand. 

4. The words, " Does the bird sing ?" ask a question. 

5. The words, " How the bird sings !" express an 

exclamation. 
fl@* From this we learn that a sentence by its form may 
express one of five things : 

1. It may state something as actual or possible. 

2. It may state something as depending on some- 
thing else. 

3. It may state something as commanded. 

4. It may state a question. 

5. It may express feeling. 



18 First Circle in English Grammar. 

There are, therefore, five kinds of sentences, viz : 

1. A sentence which states something as actual or 

possible, is called a Declarative Sentence {Ein 
Erzdhlsatz). 

Examples {Beispiele). 

John writes. John does not write. 

The boy can study. The boy cannot study. 

They may go. They may not go. 

He came yesterday. He did not come yesterday. 

2. A sentence which states something as depending 

on something else, is called a Conditional Sen- 
tence {Ein Hypothese Satz). 

Examples {Beispiele). 

If it rain, I cannot come. 

If I were you, I would study diligently. 

If you wait, I will go with you. 

If the sun shine, the snow will melt. 

3. A sentence which expresses a command, is called 

an Imperative Sentence (Ein Befehlssatz). 

Examples {Beispiele). 

John, bring me the book. 
Let the boy go home. 
G-od bless our native land. 

4. A sentence which asks a question, is called an 

Interrogative Sentence {Ein Fragesatz.) 

Examples {Beispide). 

Will your brother come to-morrow ? 
Is the world round like a ball ? 
Do all rivers flow into the sea ? 



First Circle in English Grammar. 19 

5. A sentence which expresses feeling, is called an 
Exclamative Sentence (Ausrufesatz, Wunschsatz). 

Examples (Beispiele). 

How I loved the boy ! 

O that I were a child again ! 

What a wonderful being is man ! 

Exercise ( Uebung) I. 

figr* Tell the kind of each of the following sentences ; 

1. Lambs play. 6. Do fishes swim ? 

2. Do lambs play ? 7. How the horse runs! 

3. How lambs play ! 8. How green the fields look ! 

4. Let the lambs play. 9. Let him g© . 

5. If the lambs play, 10. Come to me, child. 

they are well. 

Exercise (Uebung) II. 



Tell which of the following sentences are Declara- 
tive ? which Conditional ? which Imperative ? which 
Exclamative ? which Interrogative ? 

1. Can it fly ? 7. If he studies, he learns. 

2. Let it go. 8. We want to skate. 

3. How it spins ! 9. How they hurry ! 

4. It is nice. 10. Will it bite ? 

5. We can come. 11. Do trees grow ? 

6. Let us alone. 12. It is snowing. 

Exercise (Uebung) III. 

fi^T Mark the subject and predicate, and tell the kind of 
each sentence : 

1. Knowledge is power. 3. If it rain, I shall not go. 

2. Be careful. 4. How the wind blows 1 



20 First Circle in English Grammar. 

5. Can you read this ? 9. The hunter shot a deer. 

6. Is it snowing ? 10. Are the deer shy ? 

7. God bless our home ! 11.0 that I were young ! 

8. The pen is mighty. 12. Were I you, I should 

study. 
Model. — Knowledge is power, is a Declarative Sen- 
tence, because these words state what is actual. 

Remark. — In imperative sentences, the subject is sometimes wanting. 

Exercise ( Uebung) IV. 

$^° Give five forms to each sentence in Exercise I. Thus : 

1. Declarative : He is studious. 

2. Conditional: If he be studious, he will improve. 

3. Imperative : Let him be studious. 

4. Interrogative : Is he studious ? 

5. Exclamative : How studious he is ! 

Exercise ( Uebung) V . 

SgT Change the following sentences into sentences of each 
of the other kinds : 

1. The first snow has fallen. 

2. There will be fine sleighing to-morrow. 

3. Is the rainbow a beautiful object ? 

4. What a wonderful structure the mind is ! 

5. Look at the snow-clad mountains- 

6. Study your lessons thoroughly. 

Exercise ( Uebung) VI. 

t&- Complete the following sentences, mark the subject 
and predicate, and tell their kind : 

1. Do study ? 3. Will to-morrow? 

2. How deep the snow... I 4. He problems. 



First Circle in English Grammar. 21 

5. John letters. 9. How the rages! 

6. The snow 10. Had I known it, I 

7. James grammar. 11. lean 

8 reads well. 12. The girl 

Rkmark.— All these exercises should be written on paper, corrected in 
the class, and then carefully copied into exercise books. 

Exercise ( Uebung) VII. 

g^ Let the pupil separate the following stanzas into sen- 
tences and tell their kind : 

I. • 

The ocean eagle soared 

From his nest by the white wave's foam ; 
And the rocking pines of the forest roared, — 

This was their welcome home ! 
II. 
There were men with hoary hair 

Amidst that pilgrim band ; 
Why had they come to wither there 

Away from their childhood's land ? 
III. 
There was woman's fearless eye, 

Lit by her deep Jove's truth; 
There was manhood's brow serenely high 

And the fiery heart of youth. 
IY. 
What sought they thus afar ? 

Bright jewels of the mine ? 
The wealth of seas? the spoils of war? 

They sought a faith's pure shrine. 
V. 
Ay, call it holy ground, 

The soil where first they trod ! 
They have left unstained what there they found, 

Freedom to worship God 



22 First Circle in English Grammar. 

CHAPTEE III. 
Punctuation (Zeichensetzung), 



The three points used at the end of sentences are — 

1. The Period (.) (Der Punkf). 

2. The Interrogation-Point (?) (Das Fragezeichen). 

3. The Exclamation-Point (!) (Das Ausrufungszei- 
cheri). 

Exercise (TJebung) I. 

*&* Let the pupils practice making and naming these 
points, until they can do so with facility. 

USE 01? THE PERIOD. 

The Period (.) must be placed — 

1. After Declarative sentences. 

2. After Conditional sentences. 

3. After Imperative sentences. 

4. After Abbreviations; as, The Eev. Dr. B. F. 
Dodge. 

5. After Headings; as, Lesson I. (See above). 

Exercise ( TJebung) II. 

J6T* Write on paper and punctuate the following : 
1 Be kind 2 Birds sing 3 If he call, I shall go 
4 Dr J H L Hugo 5 J M Wayland, Esq 6 Hon H E 
W Lewis 7 2 lbs 6 oz 8 pwt 9 grs 8 He paid 3 cts 
a piece 9 The snow storm 10 Decimals 11 James Mc- 
Cosh, D D LLD 12 Maj Gen J H 8 Block U S A St 
Louis, Mo 



First Circle in English Grammar. 23 

USB OP THE INTERROGATION POINT. 

The Interrogation-Point (?) must be placed — 

1. After Interrogative sentences. 

2. After words expressing questions. 

Exercise ( Uebung) III. 

jg^* The pupil should write and punctuate the follow- 
ing : 

1 Will he come 2 Does it rain 3 How do you do 
4 What is the fourth of 20 of 12 of 28 of 40 5 What 
is one-fifth of 4 3 6 7 9 8 10 11 17 6 Does he study 
7 You think I did not see you, eh 8 What is it 

9 Where are your flashes of merriment your gambols 
your songs your gibes 10 At 10 cents a pound what 
cost 8 lbs of sugar 5 lbs 7 lbs 12 lbs 25 lbs. 

use op the exclamation point. 

The Exclamation-Point must be placed — 

1. After Exclamative sentences. 

2. After Exclamative words. 

Remark.— In German, the Exclamation-Point (!) (Ausrufungszeichen) 
is sometimes placed after imperative sentences. 

Exercise ( Uebung) IV. 

1 How good he is 2 Alas alas what have I done 
3 Fie on him 4 Ah me how happy I'll be 5 Charge 
Chester charge 6 Oh that I could find him 7 Woe 
worth the chase 8 How perfect 9 How straight 

10 What a fine view 11 How gracefully the kit© rises 
12 Ho trumpets sound a war note. 



24 First Circle in English Grammar. 

Exercise ( Uebung) V. 



Place the proper point after each of the following 
sentences, and tell why it should be used : 

1. The boy sings 7. Does the boy sing 

2. Let the boy sing 8. The horse neighs 

3. Does the horse neigh 9. How the horse neighs 

4. Birds fly 10. Do birds fly 

5. How birds fly 11. Let the birds fly 

6. Can birds fly 12. Why do birds fly 

Exercise ( Uebung) VI. 

Jt^" Let the teacher dictate the following sentences for 
punctuation: 

Fritz. Why, what is that falling out of the bread Gold 

O father gold 
Father. Do not touch it That money is not ours 
Fritz. Whose is it, then G-old O father 
Father. I do not know whose it can be we must inquire 

Eun to the baker's Quick, my son 
Fritz. But, Father, we are so poor Did you not buy the 

loaf 

Exercise (Uebung) VII. 

ti^" Let the teacher dictate paragraphs from the reading 
lesson for the pupils to punctuate. 

Exercise {Uebung) VIII. 

jg@°* Let the teacher write on the board a short selection 
without any points except commas, and require pupils to copy 
and punctuate them. 



First Circle in English Grammar. 25 

CHAPTEK IT. 
Capitals (Grosse Anf angs bucks tab en) . 



No capitals should be used unless a definite rule is 
given. The rules in general use are these : 

1. Begin the firsfrword of each sentence with a cap 

Hal. 

2. Begin the words denoting an object described or 

defined with capitals. 

3. Begin with a capital the name of every person, 

place, country, section of country, or particu- 
lar object. 

Exercise {JJebung) I. 
JS^* Correct and write on paper the following : 
1. the boy skates. 2. An elementary Sound is the 
simplest Sound of the language. 3. the west is Large 
4. st louis, mo. 5. w. r. mateer. 6. the park. 7. the 
new bridge is A Splendid Structure. 8. The united 
states of america. 9. The new merchant's-exchange. 
10. the south Is Great. 11. great britain. 12. the 
german empire. 

M@^ The following additional rules for capitals should be 
observed : 

4. The words I and O should always be in capitals. 

5. Begin the first word of every line of poetry with 

a capital. 

6. Begin with a capital all names of the Supreme 

Being. 

7. Begin with a capital the names of the months and 

of the days of the week. 

Remark.— In German, all nouns begin with capitals. 



26 First Circle in English Grammar. 

Exercise (Uebung) II. 

8®" Correct and write on paper the following : 
1. there is A god 2. He Came on tuesday, June 2. 
3. shall i come On Wednesday 4. you will have a ho- 
liday on thursday. 5. what a boy 6. the lord is 
my shepherd. 7. new york, monday, december 1 
8. twinkle, twinkle, little star ; 
how i wonder what you are 
up above the World so high 
like a Diamond in the sky 

Exercise (Uebung) III. 

W&* Put the following into letter form, separating into 
sentences, punctuating and putting capitals where they be- 
long : 

st louis, tuesday, february 6, 1874. 
my Dear sir : 

i Take pleasure In Informing you of my safe Arrival 
in this City my Journey hither Was pleasant i left 
london, eng on the 6th of January and Came to new 
york on the 29th from new york i Went to albany by 
the hudson river railroad and thence to niagara falls on 
the new york central. At niagara i crossed the queen's 
bridge on the grand trunk railroad and, crossing Canada, 
i came to detroit, mich i crossed the detroit river on a 
ferry boat took the michigan central railroad and Game 
to Chicago, ills after a day or two's stay in Chicago i took 
the c & a f r and came to this city i am Stopping at the 
lindell hotel, on Washington avenue, and shall stay 
Here a Few days the west impresses me with its 
Grandeur st louis seems to have Great Possibilities 



First Circle in English Grammar. 27 

and Whoever lives 50 years may see a city on the mis- 
sissippi as large as the one now on the thames. 
with kind regards to Friends 
i am, as ever, 

yours truly, 

Filirex. 
Exercise (Uebung) IV. 

jW* Copy and correct the following : 

The G-rey Squirrel's Fleet. 

I. 

but then did each wondrous creature show 

his cunning and Bravery ; 
with a piece of the pine-bark in his mouth 
unto the Stream came he, 
II. 
and boldly his Little bark he Launched, 

without the least Delay ; 
his bushy tail was his upright sail, 
and he merrily Steered away. 
III. 
never was there a Lovelier sight 
than that grey squirrel's fleet ; 
and with anxious eyes i watched to see 
what fortune it would meet. 
IV. 
soon had they reached the rough mid-stream, 

and ever and anon, 
i grieved to behold some small bark wrecked 
and its little Steersman gone. 
V. 
but the main fleet Stoutly held across ; 

i saw Them leap to shore ; 
they entered the Woods with a Cry of joy, 
for their perilous march was o'er. 



28 First Circle in English Grammar. 

Exercise (Uebung) Y. 



Dictate the following as an exercise in punctuation 
and capitals. 

1. the spring months are march, april and may 

2. he can speak Italian, french and german 

3. the andes are on the western coast of South 

america 

4. bunker hill monument is near boston. 

5. this is a picture of Washington crossing the Dela- 

ware 

6. the winter months are december, januarj and 

february 

7. we write on tuesday and thursday 

8. what has become of the mohegans the iriquois 
and the mohawks 

9. the pyrenees form the boundary between france 

and spain. 

10. the amazon is the largest river in South america 

11. There lies in the florida strait a rock called the 
double-headed shot keys 

Exercise ( Uebung) YI. 

$@T Let the teacher dictate sentences containing words 
beginning with capitals for pupils to write. 

Remark.— Making lists of rivers, mountains, seas, etc., is a good ex- 
ercise. 

Exercise (Uebung) YII. 

W&* Let the teacher dictate a paragraph from the reading 
lesson to punctuate and write. 

Remark.— Be careful not to select paragraphs containing long sentences. 



First Circle in English Grammar. 20 

CHAPTEE Y. 
The Noun (Das Dingwort). 



In Chapter I, we learned that — 

1. Anything which we can see, hear, touch, taste, smell 

or think, is called an Object. 

2. What is spoken or written to denote an object, or 

to express something about it, is called a Word. 

3. A word or a combination of words in which some- 

thing is said of an object, is called a Sentence. 

4. The word or the group of words denoting the ob- 

ject about which something is said, is called 
the Subject. 
5.' The word or the group of words which asserts 
something about the object, is called the Pre- 
dicate. 

Remark. —We have thus far treated the sentence as the unit of speech, but 
as the sentence is composed of words and a word is the smallest part of a 
sentence which in itself is significant, we shall proceed to classify words 
according t© what they express. Some words are significant by themselves, 
and are thus capable of being the bases of the parts of the sentence, while 
other words are significant only as they are associated with these basic 
words. Hence the basic words may be called Principals [notional words], 
the others Accessories [Relational words]. In this circle we shall treat only 
of the Principals . 

As the principal words in a sentence either denote 
objects or attribute something to objects, we shall con- 
sider — 

1. The words denoting objects themselves. 

2. The words denoting the energies or powers of ob- 

jects. 

3. The words denoting the qualities of objects. 



30 First Circle in English Grammar. 

In this chapter, we shall treat only of words de- 
noting objects themselves. 

1. Words denoting Objects. 

Exercise (JJebung) I. 

j^* Let the teacher write these sentences on the black- 
hoard : 

The sun shines. The bell rings. 

Honey is sweet. Steel is hard. 

Putty is soft. The flower is fragrant. 

Friendship is delightful. Truth is mighty. 



Now let such questions as these be asked : 
What shines ? How do you know ? [Sight.'} 
What rings ? How do you know ? [Hearing.] 
What is fragrant ? How do you know ? [Smell.'] 
What is sweet? How do you know ? £ Taste.] 
What is hard? Soft? How do you know? [Touch.] 
What is delightful? How do you know? [Thought.] 
How do we know objects? [Through our senses or 
through our understanding.] 

What are such words as sun, bell, honey, steel, putty, 
flowers, friendship, and truth called ? [Such words are 
usually called Nouns.] Hence — 

Definition. — A word which denotes an ob- 
ject, is called a Noun. 

Remark. — The word noun is derived from the Latin word nomen, which, 
in that language, has the same meaning as the English w«rd name. Noun 
and name, however, are not synonymous. If they were, we could say, 
What is your noun ? (xame) . The word noun is used technically to denote 
one of the eight classes into which words are divided. Hence, A noun is a 
part of speech. A utord used to designate an object itself IS CALLED 
[a©t is] a Noun. 



1 



First Circle in English Grammar. 31 

2. The Naming op Objects. 
Exercise ( Uebung) II. 

Let the pupil mention and write the names of — 

1. Objects in the school-room. 

2. Objects on the play-ground. 

3. Objects in a parlor. 

4. Objects in a kitchen. 

5. Objects in a garden. 

6. Objects in the fields or parks. 

7. Objects along the streets or roads. 

8. Objects on or in a river. 

9. Objects in the sky. 
10. Objects at a fair. 

Remark.— All answers should be complete sentences. In the written 
preparation the words enumerating the objects should be separated by com- 
mas (,). Thus: In the school-room, there are boys, girls, desks, books 
and maps. 

Exercise ( Uebung) III. 

@^ Lei the pupil mention and write the names of — 

1. Animals having two legs. 

2. Animals having four legs. 

3. Animals having six legs. 

4. Animals having many legs. 

5. Animals which migrate. 

6. Animals which live on land. 

7. Animals which live in the water. 

8. Animals which are domesticated. 

9. Animals which are wild. 

10. Animals which live on flesh. 

Remark. — Examine each pupil's preparation as to spelling, capitals and 
punctuation. Correct expression is the end to be gained. 



32 First Circle in English Grammar. 

Exercise ( Uebung) IY. 



Let the pupil mention and write the names of — 

1. Objects made of wood or stone. 

2. Objects made of iron or brass. 

3. Objects made of leather or hair. 

4. Objects made of wool or yarn. 
6. Objects made of cotton or silk. 

6. Objects made of lead or tin. 

7. Objects made of gold or silver. 

8. Objects made of marble or clay. 

Exercise {Uebung) Y. 

g^* Let the pupil mention and write the names of — 

1. Things which are eatable. 

2. Things which are drinkable. 

3. Things which grow in the tropics. 

4. Things which are brought from South America. 

5. Things which are brought from the Indies. 

6. Things which are dug out of the ground. 

Exercise {Uebung) YI. 

S®~ Let the pupil mention and write the names of — 

1. The tools which a blacksmith uses. 

2. The tools which a carpenter uses. 

3. The tools which a stonemason uses. 

4. The tools which a bricklayer uses. 

5. The tools which a tinsmith uses. 

6. The implements which a farmer uses. 

7. The tools which a shoemaker uses. 

8. The instruments which a dentist uses. 

9. The instruments which a surgeon uses. 
10. The instruments which an architect uses. 



First Circle in English Grammar. 33 

3. The Eecognition op Nouns. 
Exercise (Uebung) I. 

Let the teacher write the following sentences on the 
blackboard, and require her pupils to tell which words are 
nouns. 

1. The boy gave his sister an apple and a pear. 

2. Girls love dolls and ropes. 

3. The most useful metals are copper, zinc, iron, lead 

and tin. 

4. Gold is used for making watch-chains and watch- 

cases. 

5. The camel is of great use to man. 

6. Arthur's new sled was a present from his aunt. 

7. The picture represents a bo}' lying on the banks 

of a stream and throwing seeds into the water. 

8. When a man's heart is full of love, it gives him a 

kind eye, a kind voice, and a kind hand. 

Note to the Teacher. — Let one pnpil mark [draw a single line beneath] 
all the nouns in the first sentence, while the other pupils of the class 
observe, correct mistakes, and supply omissions. Proceed in the same way 
with each of the other sentences. The question, How do you knoiv this 
word to be a noun? should be asked until every noun in this exercise is 
distinctly recognized. 

Exercise {Uebung) II. 

J8@* Let the teacher assign a short paragraph in the reader 
as an exercise from which all the nouns are to be selected. 

Note to the Teacher.— The pupils should write lists of the nouns they 
reeognize, which lists should be carefully examined at the recitation. 
3 



34 First Circle in English Grammar. 

Exercise (Uebung) III. 

B®*Let the teacher assign for the next lesson the fol- 
lowing paragraph of the reading lesson selected. 

Note to the Teacher.— In the recitation, let the teacher read the word* 
slowly, clause by clause, and require her pupils to write the nouns. The 
same lesson may also be recited orally, calling upon one pupil to mention 
the nouns in the first line, another those in the second, and so on, while the 
class observe, correct mistakes, and supply omissions. 

Exercise (Uebung) IV. 

J8@* Let the next paragraph of the reading lesson selected 
constitute the following exercise. 

Note to the Teacher.— In the recitation, let the pupil designated by 
the teacher, read the first sentence, and point out the nouns, telling why 
the word is a noun . If his work is not perfect, let some other pupil take 
the same sentence, and so on until all the nouns, and the nouns only are 
selected. Each sentence should be gone over in the same way. 

Exercise (Uebung) V. 

fj&* Let the following paragraph of the selection from the 
reader be assigned for the next lesson. 

Note to the Teacher. — Let these exercises be continued until each 
member of the class can point out the nouns readily. This will require time 
and patience, but one thing thoroughly learned is so much real PRO- 
GRESS, while skimming over work has no educational value. 

Let the teacher ask with each lesson : What is a 
noun ? What does it designate ? How do you know the 
object denoted by this noun f What nouns in this lesson de- 
note things seen ? heard ? touched ? tasted ? smelt ? thought f 



First Circle in English Grammar. 35 



CHAPTEK VI. 



The Verb (Das Thatigkeitswort). 

1. Words Denoting the Energies or Powers of 
Objects. 

Exercise (Uebung) I. 

JS§?* Let the teacher write the following sentences on the 
blackboard^: 

1. John writes. 5. Trees grow. 

2. Clara whispers. 6. Eivers flow. 

3. Mary sings. 7. Honey tastes sweet. 

4. Henry studies. 8. The coat wears well. 



Let the teacher now ask : — What does John 
do? Clara? Mary? Henry? What do trees do? 
[Trees grow, that is, they can take moisture from the 
ground and gas from the air, and change them into 
wood, bark, leaves, etc.] What do rivers do ? [Eivers 
flow, that is, the drops of water move onward while 
other drops take their place.] What does honey do ? 
[Honey tastes sweet, that is, it has the power of pro- 
ducing a pleasant taste.] What does the coat do ? 
[The coat wears well, that is, the coat has great power 
to resist the forces that tend to destroy it.] Hence, 
such words as writes, whispers, sings, studies, grow, flow, 
tastes and wears, denote the energies of objects. 



36 First Circle in English Grammar. 

Exercise ( Uebung) II. 
Let the following sentences be written on the black- 



board : 

1. Leaves fall. 5. The book lies on the desk. 

2. Balls roll. 6. The statue stands in the park. 

3. Smoke rises. 7. The child sleeps in its crib. 

4. Cork floats. 8. The old man sits in his chair. 

Nors to the Teacher. — As it is somewhat difficult to make pupils un- 
derstand how such words as fall, rise, sit or lies express the energies of 
objects, it is well to consider the following facts : 

All bodies are endowed with a certain tension which makes them seek 
other bodies. This power is called the attraction of gravitation. Leaves 
fall, and balls roll, because there is no force to prevent their movement. 
Smoke rises, and cork floats, because air and water have a greater density, 
and consequently act with an intenser force, and since smoke and cork have 
the power to resist this opposing force, they are lifted by the re-action in 
the opposite direction. The book lies and the statue stands, because the 
desk&ud the earth have arrested their motion, and, by the force of attrac- 
tion, hold them in a stationary condition . The old man tits, because he has 
surrendered himself to the influence of this force. The child sleeps, because 
the action of its senses is suspended . 

Exercise (Uebung) III. 

Jg^* Let the following sentences be written on the black- 
board : 

1. Nouns denote objects, and verbs assert. 

2. Grammar teaches correct speech. 

3. Mathematics treats of quantity. 

4. Adjectives limit nouns and pronouns. 
Jt^* Let the teacher ask how these objects act. 

Note to the Teacher. — Bodies may act involuntarily as well as volunta- 
rily. When a body cannot control its own action, it acts involuntarily ; 
but when its action is controUed by the voluntary act of another body, it is 
said to act mechanically . When a body acts mechanically, it is used as a 
means or instrument . The voluntary ageut acts for himself, and us-es other 
objects to advance his ends. Thus thinking mind creates words and sci- 
ences, and endows them with the power of performing certain functions 



First Circle in English Grammar, 37 

It then thinks them into agents, and contemplates them as putting forth 
energies. Hence, nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc., are represented as doing 
certain things, when, in fact, they are only the instruments through which 
the acts are performed. As all objects must he either at rest or in motion, 
and must he either agents or instruments, it is evident that all bodies put 
forth energies. 

2. The Naming op Words Denoting Energies or 
Powers. 

Exercise ( Uebung) IV. 

j^T* Let the following sentences be written on the black- 
board : 

1. John plays. 4. Eudora reads. 

2. Ava sings. 5. Frank recites. 

3. Hattie studies. 6. Walter walks. 

J^~ The words plays, sings, studies, reads, recites and 
walks tell what John, Ava, Hattie, Eudora, Frank and 
Walter do. 

Remark.— As the acts of objects are the first things to arrest our attention, 
and, in Latin and Greek, words denoting these manifestations may consti- 
tute complete sentences, the words denoting the energies of objects are 
called Verbs. Hence— 

Definition. — A word which asserts the mode 
in which an object exists or acts, is called a Verb. 

Remark.— The noun and verb may now be contrasted. Thus : The 
noun denotes the object itself ; the verb tells something about it. The 
noun brings objects before the mind ; the verb asserts the mode in which 
they exist or act. The noun presents objects as entireties ; the verb pre- 
sents them as energies or powers. 

Exercise (Uebung) V. 

$&&* Let each pupil write sentences expressing five acts 
proper to the following objects : 

A horse, a bird, Washington, ships, John, a farmer, 
squirrels, the teacher, a carpenter, Mary. 

Model. — A horse walks, trots, gallops, paces and 
prances. 

Uemark.— Examine and correct each pupil's preparation. 
3* 



38 First Circle in English Grammar. 

Exercise ( Uebung) VI. 



Let each pupil write sentences expressing five states. 
proper to each of the following objects : 

A boy, books, trees, Napoleon, William, a knife,, sa 
ball, mother, a ear, an ox. 

Model. — A boy may lie, sit, stand, sleep, or watch. 

Note to the Teacher.— Be careful lest your pupils use adjectives, to ex- 
press the state of the given objeet. 



3. The Eecognition op Verbs. 

Exercise (Uebung) I. 

Let the following sentences be written on the black- 
board : 

1. Those who visit the city and go to the parks, are: 

surprised to see so many birds flying about. 

2. Mabel was in the kitchen when she heard her father 

call her. 

3. She had climbed into a chair and taken a vase from 

the mantel, which had slipped from her hands 
and fallen to the floor, where it was broken to 
pieces. 

4. Mabel was alarmed at what she had done. 

b. She ran out of the room and. shut the door, hoping 
that no one would know she had been there. 

Model. — The boy tried to climb the tree, but 1 fell. 

Note to the Teachek.— Let one pupil mark (draw a double line beneath) 
all the verbs in the first sentence, while chte others observe, correct mistakes*. 
and supply omissions. Let each sentence. be treated in the same way. The- 
question, How do you know this word ip^be a verb? should be repeatedly 
asked , 



First Circle in English Grammar. 39 

Exercise ( Uebung) II. 

Let the pupil mark all the verbs and nouns in the 
following sentences : 

1. A lie is anything said or done to deceive. 

2. He is a coward who is afraid to speak the truth. 

3. Do you know the child who never told a lie ? 

4. Priceless gem ! The pearl of Truth ! 
Brightest ornament of youth! 
Seek to wear it in thy crown ; 
Th^n, if all the world should frown, 
Thou hast won a glorious prize 
That will guide thee to the skies. 

Exercise (Uebung) III. 

4®* Let the teacher take the same selection she used for 
nouns, and assign a paragraph from which all the verbs are 
to be selected. 

Note to the Teacheh.— The pupils should write lists of the verbs they 
recognize, which lists should he carefully examined at the recitation. 

Exercise (JJebung) IV. 
jg&* Let the next paragraph be taken as the next lesson. 

Note to the Teacher.— While the teacher reads the words slowly, 
clause by clause, let the pupils write the verbs in class. 

Exercise (Uebung) Y. 

M6&* Let the next paragraph constitute the following les- 
son. 

Note to the Teacher.— Let the first line be read by some pupil and all 
the verbs be pointed out, while the others attend and criticise the work. 
Let these exercises be continued as long as necessary. 



40 First Circle in English Grammar. 



CHAPTEE VII. 



Adj ectives (Eigenschaftsworter) . 

1. Words Denoting the Quality or Condition of 
Objects. 

Exercise {Vebung) I. 

Jl^" Let the teacher take an apple and direct her pupils 
to examine it, after which let her ask such questions as these : 

What is the size of this apple ? [large, small.'] What 
is its color ? [red, yellow, russet, green.] What is its 
shape ? [round, oblong, flattened.] What is its consist- 
ency ? [hard, soft, mellow, smooth.] What is its taste ? 
[sweet, sour, bitter, insipid.] How ean you tell its size, 
color and shape? [sight.] How can you tell its consist- 
ency ? [touch.] How can you tell its flavor ? [taste.] 
Can you name any other qualities of the apple ? Name 
them. What is the function of such words as red, 
round, hard, sweet and large ? These words show differ- 
ences by which we may distinguish one object from 
another. 

Exercise (Uebung) II. 

M^~£et the teacher take apiece of crayon, and showing 
it to her class, let her ask — 

What is the color of this crayon ? Have you seen 
crayons of different colors? What is its size? Men- 
tion five things larger than the crayon j five things 



First Circle in English Grammar. 41 

smaller ; five things of about the same size. What is 
its shape ? What things have the same shape ? What 
is its consistency ? Mention five things which are 
harder than the crayon ; five, that are softer ; five, of 
about the same consistency. Can you break it ? What 
other things can be broken ? Of what use is it ? 

Let the qualities thus elicited be embodied in a sen- 
tence. Thus : This piece of crayon is white, etc. 



Exercise (Uebung) III. 

Let such sentences as these be written on the black 
board : 

1. Winter is near, distant, past. 

2. William is anxious, quiet, boisterous, stubborn. 

3. Mabel is healthy, sick, convalescent, dead. 

4. Helen is joyous, despondent, pleased, angry. 

5. The fields look barren, fresh, green, desolate. 

6. Pero was a splendid large Newfoundland dog, 

with a white spot under his neck. 

7. He had a beautiful head, and large brown eyes 

full of courage. 

8. Go away from the light, little miller, 

'T will singe your beautiful wings ) 
I know it is bright, and a glorious sight; 
But it isn't quite right, little miller, 

To play with such dangerous things. 

I^TWhat is said of winter? William ? Mabel? 
Helen? fields? 



Rbmakk. — Some words denote, bul do not assert, the mode in which an 
object exists. If the state expressed be internal, it is called condition *, but 
if it be external, it is called position or situation^ 



42 First Circle in English Grammar. 

2. The Naming of Words Denoting Quality or 
Condition. 

Exercise (Uebung) I. 

4^* Let the following sentences be written on the black- 
board : 

1. Large, red apples grew on a graceful tree. 

2. Pretty little girls were playing in a beautiful hall. 

3. The teacher gave all the diligent pupils valuable gifts. 

4. The morning was quiet, serene and bright. 

5. Ida was peevish, impatient and revengeful. 

H^Let these sentences be examined. Two things 
may be brought out, viz : 

1. The italicised words are all joined to nouns. 

2. The italicised words express the quality or con- 

dition of the objects denoted by the aouns. 
Words which are thus joined to nouns to show the 
quality or condition of objects, are called Adjectives. 
Hence — 

Definition. — A word joined to a noun to 
show the difference which distinguishes one ob- 
ject from another, is called an Adjective. 

Remark.— Adjectives answer the tiiietstioiisi, Of lohat kind 1 ? In lohal 
condition ? 

3. The ^Recognition op Adjectives. 

Exercise (Uebung) I. 

SG&* Let the following sentencts be written on the black- 
board: 

1. Grold is of a bright, yellow color, and is very heavy. 

2. Iron is quite hard, aud is malleable and ductile. 



First Circle in English Grammar. 43 

3. I saw a sly little squirrel, with nimble feet. 

4. A beautiful butterfly, careless and gay, is flitting 
from flower to flower. 

5. We should be as grateful and joyous as birds. 

Remark.— Let the pupil point out the adjectives as they did the nouns 
and verbs. 

Exercise (Uebung) II. 

ti^Let the first paragraph of the piece formerly assigned 
constitute the next exercise. 

Remark.— Let the pupils select the adjectives as they did the nouns and 
verbs. 



Exercise (Uebung) III. 
Let the next paragraph constitute the next lesson. 

Remark,— These exercises should be continued until all the adjectives 
are selected without mistake. 



Exercise ( Uebung) IY. 

Let the pupil now select all the nouns, verbs and 
adjectives from selections assigned. 



Keview questions should frequently be asked 
such as, What is a noun ? a verb ? an adjective ? What is 
the difference between a noun and an adjective ? What is 
the difference between a verb and an adjective ? What 
adjectives in the sentence denote qualities seen ? heard ? 
touched ? tasted f smelt ? thought ? 

Remark.— The noun, the verb, and the adjective are called Notion Words 
{Begriffsw'orter) , 



44 • First Circle in English Grammar. 



CHAPTEE VIII. 



Words and Syllables {JVbrter und Silben). 

I. Words (JYorter). 

A word designates (bezeichnet) a notion or a relation, 
and may be either audible (harbor) or visible (sichtbar) , 
that is, a word may be either spoken or written. 

A Written Word consists of syllables and letters. 

A Spoken Word consists of syllables and elementary 
sounds. 

Remark. — As we have thus far treated the sentence as the unit of discourse 
and found that the subject and predicate were proximate elements, while 
nouns, verbs and adjectives were ultimate elements, so we shall now treat 
the word as the unit of discourse, while syllables will constitute its prox- 
imate elements, and letters or sounds, its ultimate elements. 

2. Syllables (Silben). 

A Spoken Syllable is that part of a word which may 
be uttered by a single impulse of the voice; as, im-puhe, 
ut-tered, move-went. 

A Written Syllable consists of the letters which de- 
signate the elementary sounds of a spoken syllable, 
together with those letters which are no longer signifi- 
cant; as, thought-fid, thor-ough-ly, in which u, g and h 
no longer represent elementary sounds. 



First Circle in English Grammar. 46 

Exercise (JJehung) I. 

Let the following words be separated into uttered and 
written syllables : 

Talents angel bright, if wanting worth, are shining 
instruments in false ambition's hand, to finish faults 
illustrious and give renown to infamy. 

Model. — Tal-ents consists of two syllables, because 
two impulses of voice are requisite for its utterance. 

Exercise (Uebung) II. 

J8^* Let suitable words be selected from the reading lesson 
and written on the board for drill. 

3. Words Classed by Syllables. 

As words may consist of one, two, three, or more 
syllables, so they are named according to the number 
of syllables they contain. 

1. A word of one syllable i, called a Monosyllable 

(Einsilbig) ; as, strength, thought, pique, thanks, a, 
of I. 

2. A word of two syllables is called a Dissylla- 

ble {Zweisilbig) \ as, author, grammar, ado, gra- 
cious. 

3. A word of three syllables is called a Trisylla- 

ble (Lreisilbig) ; as, fortunate, thankfully, cheer- 
fully, exercise. 

4. A word of more than three syllables is called 

a Polysyllable (Mehrsfflbig) ; as, constitution, 
meritorious, syllabification, incomprehensibility. 

Hsmarx— Words of more than one syllable are sometimes called ]»»ly* 
syllabic 



46 First Circle in English Grammar. 

Exercise ( Uebung) I. 



Let the pupil make four lists of the following words 
putting all the monosyllables in one list, the dissylla- 
bles in another, the trisyllables in a third and the poly- 
syllables in a fourth. 

There are wonderful plants far over the sea, 
But what are they all to the Christmas tree ? 
Does the oak bear candies, the palm-tree skates ? 
B»ut sugar-plums, trumpets, doll-babies, slates, 
Picture-books, elephants, soldiers, cows, 
All grow at once on the Christmas tree boughs. 

Remark. — Such words as sugar-plums, doll-babies, and picture-books are 
called compound words. Why? 

Better than gold is the sweet repose 

Of the sons of toil, when their labors close; 

Better than gold is the poor man's sleep, 

And the balm that drops on his slumbers deep; 

Better than gold is a thinking mind, 

That in realms of thought and books can find 

A treasure surpassing Australian ore, 

And live with the great and good of yore. 



Exercise ( Uebung) II. 
Let the pupil write ten words of each kind. 
Exercise (Uebung) III. 



Let the pupil make lists of the words in some para- 
graph selected from the reading lesson. 



First Circle m English Grammar. 47 

OHAPTEE IX. 



Letters (Buchstaben). 

The visible (sichtbare) elements of words are called 
Letters. 

The English (also the German) Alphabet contains 
twenty-six letters which have three forms in English 
and two in German*, viz : 

1. Small letters Qdeine Buchstaben)) as, a,. b, c, d, 

e, i y etc. 

2. Capitals (grosse Buchstaben) ; as, A, B, C, D, E, 

F, etc. 

3. Small caps (none in German) ; as a, p>, o, d, e, 

f, G, etc. 

Remark 1. — Small caps are used in the body of the names of persons 
and of the first word in reading lessons. (For examples, see Readers.) 

Remark 2. — Inclined letters are called italics ; vertical letters ..Roman. 

Remark 3. — As degrees of emphasis are expressed by Italics, small 
caps, and CAPITALS, it is usual in writing to draw one line under a word 
intended to be in Italics, two lines under words intended to be in small 
caps, and three lines under words intended to be in CAPITALS. 

Remark 4. — In German, spaced type (gesperrte Schrift) is used instead of 
Italics and small caps; as, z u f r i e d e n. 

The letters a. e, i, o, u and y are called Vowels; all 
the others are called Consonants. In English, y is 
sometimes a consonant. 

Exercise (Uebung) I. 

jS^* Let the pupil tell the form of the type in the following 
words ; also which letters are vowels and which consonants : 
Thomas Jefferson. Lord Angus, thou hast LIED. 
Go, ring the bells and fire the guns, 
And fling the starry banners out; 
Shout FREEDOM till your lisping ones 
Give back their cradle shout. 



4S First Cirele in English Grammar. 



OHAPTEE X. 



Sounds (Laute). 

The audible (horbare) elements of words are called 
Elementary Sounds. 

The elementary sounds are divided into two classes, 
viz: 

I. Yowel-sounds (Selbstlaute). 
II. Consonant-sounds (^Mitlaute). 

A Vowel is a sound produced from the vibration of 
the vocal chords, and not interrupted in the vocal 
canal. 

A Consonant is a sound produced by the vibration 
of the vocal chords, but interrupted entirely or par- 
tially in its course through the vocal canal. 

Note to the Teacher. — Explain as accurately as possible the nature and 
function of the vocal chords. Make the pupils put their fingers on their 
throats and feel the vibration as they talk. Explain also what is meant bi- 
focal canal and how the different vowels are produced by the lengthening 
and shortening, widening and narrowing of it. Show them that in saying 
» the lips are drawn back while the larynx rises, making the canal as short 
as possible, while the opposite takes place in pronouncing u (in rude) . 
Make the pupils tell how they make the difference between ga and kaj da 
and ta; ba and pa, etc. (Cf. Max Mu'ller's Science of Language, 2nd 
Series, Lecture III, pp 106-174:.) 

For convenience of treatment, the vowels may be 
divided into three classes, viz : 

1. Primitive vowels (reine Selbstlaute). 

2. Derivative vowels ( Umlaute). 

3. Diphthongs (Doppellauie). 

The Primitive vowels are heard in the words me, 
fate, arm, hole and rude, and are identical in English 
and German. 



First Circle in English Grammar. 49 

The Derivative vowels are heard in the words bath 
or air, fall, and earth, two of which, the a in air and 
the e in earth correspond with the umlauts a and 6, 
while the sound of a in fall is wanting in German, and 
the sound of u in B ruder is wanting in English. 

The Diphthongs are heard in the words pine, boy, 
house, and mule, two of which, I in pine and ou in 
house correspond with the German doppellaute in Leib 
and Baum, while the German au or eu is nearly equi- 
valent to oi in toil. 

Kkmark. — Tbe sounds of the vowels as heard in the words male, meal, 
mile, mole, mule, are called Name-sounds. 

The relations of the vowels are shown in the follow- 
ing diagrams : 

I. Primitive Yowels (reine Selbstlaute). . 

English. German. 

Long e, as in me. i as in ihn. 

Long a, as in fate. e as in eben. 

Italian a, as in arm. a as in Ahn. 

Long d, as in hole. o as in Ohr. 

u Close u, as in rule, u as in Uhr. 

II. Derivative Yowels (Umlaute). 

x English. German. 

Flat a, as in air. a as in Yater. 

-o Broad a, as in all. (wanting.) 

Tilde 3, as in her. 6 as in Loffel. 

French, u (wanting). xi as in Briider. 



Rkmakk. — The umlaut o in German is not quite identical with Tilde e. ] 
4* 




56 First Circle in English Grammar. 

HI. Diphthongs (JDoppellaute). 

English. German. 

Long I, composed of a in arm and i in pit. Ei as in Leib. 
oi or oy, u of a in all and i in pit. Eu or au. 
on or ow, Ci of a in arm and u in put. Au in Haus. 
Long u, " of i in pit and u in rule. Ju in Jube. 

Exercise (Uebung) I. 

I©- Let the pupil select the vowel-sounds from the follow- 
ing words and tell like the vowel in what word it sounds : 

Meed, meat, mete, bier, seize, pique, key, tame, deal, 
vain, lief, bought, taught, stall, psalm, calm, mourn, 
hall, tour, balm, dote, toad, food, laugh, loose, sauce, 
routine, earth, fur, tooth, lath, path, hoop, truth, vine, 
joy, house, wine, mouse, coil, dew, mule. 



Exercise (Uebung) II. 

9&* Let the pupil pronounce the following words, and 
gtve the vowel sound in each : 

There 's a good time coming, boys, 

A good time coming : 
The pen shall supersede the sword, 
And Eight, not Might, shall be the lord, 

In the good time coming. 
Worth, not Birth, shall rule mankind, 

And be acknowledged stronger; 
The proper impulse has been given ;- — 

Wait a little longer. 



First Circle in English Grammar. 51 



CHAPTEE XI. 



Quantity of Vowels (JDehnung una Schdrfung). 

The Primitive and Derivative vowels may be long 
or short, as heard in the following words : 
Long vowels : me, fate,, air, arm, all, earth, home, rude. 
Short vowels : pit, met, at, art, not, up, wholly, put. 

Exercise (Uebung) I. 

J^* Let the teacher utter the following words and let the 
pupil give the corresponding long voioel-sounds : 

At, get, bring, fit, net, mat, cart, what, put, up, foot, 
dot, jet, pat, chart, slit, wert, dirt, flirt, fret, wet, pull, 
oats. 

Note. — Pronounce the word and then utter the vowel sound which it 
contains . 

Exercise {Uebung) II. 

J8&~ Let the teacher utter the following words and let the 
pupil give the corresponding short vowel-sounds : 

Mate, mete, mite, mote, moot, air, mirth, gall, kite, 
treat, calm, grow, crude, seize, field, wrath, path, grace, 
yield. 

Exercise (Uebung) III. 

5@~ Let the teacher utter the following words, and let the 
pupil give the corresponding long or short voioel-sounds : 
Oh ! a wonderful stream is the river of Time, 
As it runs through the realm of tears, 
. With a faultless rhythm and a musical rhyme 
And a broader sweep and a surge sublime, 
As it blends in the ocean of years ! 



52 First Circle in English Grammar. 

I. Vowels denote long sounds under the following 
circumstances : 

1. A vowel is long and represents its name sound, 

when it^ends an accented syllable, as, sd-cred, 
nd-body, fd-vor-ite. 

2. A vowel is long generally when it is followed by 

a, e, i, or o, in the same syllable ; as, fear, deer, 
field, fail, door, people. 

3. A vowel is long when followed by any con- 
sonant (excepts) and silent e ; as fate, mote, 
mile, mute, live, dove. 

R.BMA.RK. — Before v vowels vary; as, dove, drove, shove, hove. 

4. All diphthongs are long ; as, pine, oil, house, mvle. 

II. Yowels denote short sounds under the follow- 

ing circumstances : 

1. A vowel is short generally when it is followed 
by one or more consonants in the same syl- 
lable ; as, man, rat, miss. 

Remabk. — A vowel followed by a single consonant is long in German. 

2. A vowel is short or slight and has its primitive 
sound in all unaccented syllables; as, spoliation, 
infidelity, inflammatory. 

Exercise (Uebung) 

n^" Let the teacher select paragraphs from the reading 
lesson and require her pupils to distinguish the length of the 
vowels and tell why they are long or short. 



First Circle in English Grammar. 53 

CHAPTEK XII. 



Consonants (Mitlaute). 

There are twenty-six consonant sounds in English and 
twenty-one in German. 

I. TFand y are called Semi-vowels ; wh and h, Aspirates. 

1. The sound of w. 

To produce this sound, utter the sound of oo (close u) 
in good so as to blend it with the following vowel j as, 
oo-e=we ; oo-a-s=was ; oo-oo-l. 

Remakk. — This sound is wanting in German. 

2. The consonant sound of y. 

To produce this sound, utter the sound of e in feet so 
as to blend it with the following vowel j as, e-6-s=yes ; 
e-e-l-d— yield .; e-o-n-d-e-r=yonder. 

Remakk. — This sound is represented in German by j (jot) . Also in English 
by j in the word hallelujah. 

3. The sound of wh. 

To produce this sound, bring the lips close together 
and then separate them suddenly, allowing the breath 
to escape without obstruction. 

Remark.— This sound is wanting in Gei-man. 

4. The sound of h. 

Adjust the organs to the position for forming the 
following vowel, and then blend the breath with the 
vowel sound ; as, h-oiv— how ; h-arm=hsirm. 

Exercise (Uebuny). 

JNaT" Let each pupil select all the sounds of w, y, wh and 
h from the following words and tell how they are produced : 

Wine, yeast, white, hole, whole, why, wheat, went, 
yesterday, your, young, wrong, him, hour, brilliant 
ttnion, vineyard, vignette, soldier. 



54 First (Jtrcle in English Grammar. 

II. L, rough r and smooth r are called Trills. 

5. The sound of I. 

To produce 7. bring the tip of the tongue in con- 
tact with the upper gum and sing. 

6. The sound of trilled (impure) r. 

To produce this sound, cause the tongue to vibrate 
against the inner gum of the upper teeth and sing. 

7. The sound of smooth r. 

To produce this sound, depress the back part of the 
tongue slightly, then direct the breath against the back 
part of the roof of the mouth and sing. 

Remark. — This Bound is wanting in German. 

Exercise ( Uebung). 

g^Ltt the pupil select the sounds of 1 and rfrom the fol- 
lowing words and tell hoc: they are produced : 

Epistle, for. rough, ring, wrong, link, error, little, 
buttle, candle, rabble, uorid, horrid, lyric. 

III. M, n. and ng are called Xasals. 

8. The sound of m. 

To produce this sound, close the lips, open the nasal 
passages and sing through the nose. 

9. The sound of smooth n. 

To produce this sound, place the forepart of the 
tongue against the inside of the upper teeth, open the 
nasal pas-ages and sing through the nose. 

Roiakk.- X is smooth except when it comes before g, k, or ch hard as in 
anchor. In angel, a is smooth, because g is soft likej. 

10. The sound of ng (guttura 

To produce this sound, open the mouth, apply the 
back part of the tongue to the soft palate, open the nasal 
passages and sing through the nose. 



First Circle in English Grammar. 55 

Exercise (Uebung). 

m~Let the pupil select and sound all the m's n's and no's 
in the following words: 

Bring, think, anger, near, mingle, frank, sink, sank 
angle, angel, mamma, single, song, anchor, ant-hill. 

IV. B, p ; d, t; j, eh ; g, k are called Explosives. 

11. The sound of b. 

To produce this sound,. compress the edges of the lips 
close the nasal passages, and sing. 

12. The sound of p. 

To produce this sound, bring the edges of the lips into 
firm contact, compress the breath and suddenly open 
the lips. 

13. The sound of d. 

To produce this sound, place the forepart of the 
tongue firmly against the inside of the upper teeth 
compress the breath and sing, 

14. The sound of t. 

To produce this sound, place the forepart of the 
tongue firmly against the inside of the upper teeth 
and compress the breath until it removes part of the 
obstructing edges. 

15. The sound of;. 

To produce this sound, place a part of the tongue 
near the tip against the roof of the mouth and sing. 

Remark.— This sound is wanting in German. 

16. The sound of ch. 

To produce this sound, place a part of the tongue 
near the tip against the roof of the mouth, compress the 
breath and then suddenly withdraw the tongue and 
emit the breath violently. 

Remark— This sound is wanting in German. 



56 First Circle in English Grammar. 

17. The sound of g. 

To produce this sound, elevate the back part of the 
tongue until it touches the soft palate, compress the 
breath and sing. 

18. The sound of k. 

To produce this sound, elevate the back part of the 
tongue until it touches the soft palate, compress the 
breath and then allow it to escape suddenly. 

Exercise (Vebung). 

8@r Let the pupil select all the explosive sounds from the 
following words and tell how they are produced ; 

Blind, grudge, turn, trust, deed, mind, cat, dog, frog, 
feet, dust, risk, that, horse, house, fists. 

Y. Y, f; th, th; z, b; zh, sh are called Continuants. 

19. The sound of v. 

To produce this sound, place the lower lip against 
the edges of the upper front teeth and sing. 

Remark. — This is the German w (vay) nearly. 

20. The sound of/. 

To produce this sound, place the lower lip against the 
edges of the upper front teeth, and force the breath 
through the aperture. 

Remark. — This is the German vau (v) or eff (f) . 

21. The sound of flat (sonant) th. 

To produce this sound, place the tip of the tongue 
against the inner surface of the upper front teeth and 
sing. 

Remark,— This sound ia wanting in German. 



First Circle in English Grammar. 57 

22. The sound of sharp (surd) th. 

To produce this sound, place the tip of the tongue 
against the inner surface of the upper front teeth, and 
then force the breath through the aperture. 

Remark.— This sound is wanting in German. 

23. The sound of smooth z. 

To produce this sound, round the tip of the tongue 
and bring it near the upper front teeth, then press its 
sides against the upper side teeth and sing. 

Remark. — Initial s represents this sound in German. The German z is a 
double consonant equivalent to ts in English ; as, tanz-tants. 

24. The sound of sharp s. 

To produce this sound, round the tip of the tongue 
and bring it near the upper front teeth, then press its 
sides against the upper side teeth, and force the breath 
through the aperture. 

25. The sound of impure z as in vision. 

To produce this sound, round the tip of the tongue, 
bring it near the upper front teeth, draw the tongue 
inward, raise it in the middle and then sing. 

26. The sound of sh. 

To produce this sound, draw the tongue inward from 
its position in making s, raise it in the middle and then 
force the breath through the aperture. 
Remark. — This is the German sch (Ess-tsay-hah) . 

Exercise (Uebung). 

M^* Let the pupil select the continuants from the following 
words and tell how they are produced : 

Yain, fan, thus, this, then, thin, zeal, seal, pleasure, 
shall, measure, flint, fife, such, vision, mission, sure 
sugar, sumac. 



58 First Circle in English Grammar. 

Correlatives. 



Eighteen of the consonant sounds are correlative, 
that is, each sonant has a corresponding surd. 

Sonants : w b d j g v th z zh 
Surds : wh p t ch k f th s sh 

Exercise (Uebung). 

JB@* Let the pupil select the consonants from the following 
vjords and give their correlative sound : 

Nation, various, truth, miser, thinkable, furious, na- 
tural, sugar, vinegar, zinc, forward, yes, yell, soldier, 
spaniel, thin. 

%^As correlative sounds are interchanged in pronuncia- 
tion, the following rules must be observed : 

Eule I. — When a sonant follows a surd or a surd fol- 
lows a sonant in the same syllable, the following con- 
sonant is changed into its corresponding correlative; 
as, Thanked, is pronounced thankt; ripped is pronounced 
ript. 

Bkmark. — S final has the sound of z, when it follows a sonant or forms 
a syllable with e; as, Boxes (pro. eoxez) , brushes (pro. eru&hez), rids (pro 

KEBZ), 

Eule II. — S between two vowels or a sonant and a 
vowel, has the sound of z ; as, S in house is changed into 
z in houses ; Absolved is pronounced abzolved ; venison is 
pronounced venizon. 

Remark. — According to the same principle, /is changed to v before es in 
the plural of beef, calf, elf, half, knife, life, loaf, leaf, shelf, self, sheaf, thief, 
wife, wolf, staff and wharf '. 

Eule III. — 77i(surd) at the end of nouns, excepting 
youth &ndt?*uth, becomes sonant before s in the plural; 
as, Th surd in path becomes th sonant in paths. 

Exercise (Uebung). 
W^rLet the teacher apply these rules to words selected 
from the reading lesson. 



First Circle in English Grammar. b9 

Miscellaneous Exercises. 



Exercise (Uebung) I. 
Let the pupil give the sound of w, wh, y, h, 1, and 
v in the following words and tell how they are prodvy 

Word, yard, poniard, filial, we, yet, farewell, roar, 
yarn, wit, pinion, hallelujah, low, high, hear, whole, 
hour, why, serious, pirate, fun, florid, wheat, what, 
who, whose, whom. 

Exercise ( Uebung) II. 

jg^* Let the pupil give the sounds of m, n, and ng in the 
following words and tell how they are produced: 

Singer, anger, mind, donkey, anchor, thank, finger, 
lynx, psalm, plumb ; mother, congress, language, wind, 
handkerchief. 

Exercise (Uebung) III. 

$^~Let the pupil give the sounds of b, p, v, f, d, t, and 
th in the following words and tell how they are produced : 

Yain, deal, lief, plate, bake, think, this, thin, take, 
dear, plant, free, thus, van, book, muff, vine, fruit. 

Exercise (Uebung) IV. 

S^" Let the pupil give the sounds of j, ch, g, k, a, z, zli, 
and ah in the following words and tell how they are pro- 
duced : 

Judge, church, brush, mask, liquor, music, azure, 
viwion, fissure, buzz, George, pique, box, queer, knock*, 
muzzle, mission, notion, knit, knife, gag, child, chorus, 
chaise, chore, Noachian, sugar, sure, gorgeous. 

Exercise (Uebung) V. 
j^* Let the teacher select five words daily and require 
her pupils to produce distinctly all the sounds which they 
contain. 



60 * First Circle in English Grammar. 

Test Exercises in Review. 



Let the pupil tell the following things about each sen- 
tence in this exercise : 

I. Subject and predicate. 
TI. Kind of sentence. 

III. Bules for Punctuation. 

IV. Bules for Capitals. 

Y. Which words are Nouns. 
VI. Which words are Verbs. 
VII. Which words are Adjectives. 
VIII. Syllables, and kinds according to syllables. 
IX. Forms and kinds of letters. 
X. Names and kinds of sounds. 

Sentences (Sdtze). 

1. Washington was the first President of the IJ . S. 

2. Niagara Falls is a mighty cataract. 

3. Shall we gather strength by irresolution ? 

4. How vast is the power of the human mind ! 

5. I heard him tell the boy to stop talking. 

6. The patriarch saw the Bow of Promise rise above 
the world. 

7. Xing Francis was a hearty king and loved a royal 
sport. 

8. Be thy last days serene and peaceful. 

9. To arms! To arms! TO ABMS ! they cry. 

10. Stand ! the ground 's your own } my braves ! 

11. If Wisdom's ways you 'd wisely seek, 

Five things observe with care j 
Of whom you speak, to whom you speak, 
And how, and when, and where. 

FINIS. 



SECOND CIRCLE 



—IN- 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



■FOR THE — 



FIFTH YEAR OR GRADE 



T. R. VICKROY. 



Reduce every subject to its elements — one difficulty at a time is enough for 
a child. — Pestalozzi. 



SAINT LOUIS: 

PUBLISHED BY THE POLYTECHNIC PUBLISHING COMPANY. 
1875- 



9K 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1875, by 
THE POLYTECHNIC PUBLISHING COMPANY, 

OF ST. LOUIS, 

In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C. 



PREFACE. 



The following pages contain what is designed to be a 
second year's work in English Grammar. It is for Fifth 
Grade pupils. 

In preparing a text-book so graded as to carry the pupil 
forward by easy steps, it is difficult to strike the golden mean 
between too much and too little. If too little is given, the 
pupil becomes indolent ; and if too much is given, he is dis- 
couraged. He should be neither starved nor crammed, but 
should have just the quantity for healthy growth. The author 
thinks that the book does not contain too much matter for a 
year's instruction, especially as this is the second year of the 
course. However, the live teacher can easily adapt it to the 
wants of any particular class of pupils. 

Grammar should be made a practical study in the use of 
language — not a mere study about language. The pupil 
should therefore be required to express his thoughts in correct 
language, orally and in writing. Hence the many exercises 
which the pupil is required to prepare. 

As to the method of the book, it is scarcely necessary to 
say that it is inductive and synthetic. This method is suited 
to pupils in this grade. As they become able to interpret the 
meaning of language, the transition will be gradually made to 
the deductive and the analytic. 



4 PRE FACE . 

The three steps by which the author has endeavored to 
unfold the matter of each chapter are the following : 
i. The matter is presented, named and defined. 

2. The pupil applies what he learns in written exercises. 

3. The pupil identifies what he has learned with similar 
elements in the language of others. 

1. Through examples the various elements of a subject are 
presented and the pupil is exercised until he grasps them. 
They are then named and defined. Thus the pupil is 
enabled to grasp singly the elements which enter into a def- 
inition. Hence the definition, which is a compact summary 
of the elements learned, should be carefully committed to 
memory. 

2. The application of the principles learned to the compo- 
sition of sentences, is designed to fix them indelibly in the 
pupil's mind. If we try to use a particular kind of word or a 
special form correctly in a written exercise, we shall first have 
to know it pretty thoroughly. This is what the exercises in 
the use of words is designed to accomplish. 

3. The recognition, in the language of others, of any kind 
of word or special form, is the first step in entering the field 
of literature from which such vast treasures of knowledge may 
be gleaned. As the act of knowing is a process of identifying 
that which before was unknown with something which we 
already know, the exercises under this head must result in 
extending the pupil's knowledge. Thus what we teach the 
pupil becomes an instrument through which he may acquire 
knowledge for himself. J his is the secret of mental growth. 

As a teacher, the author offers this little book to the public 
as his effort to make grammatical study interesting and profit- 
able. 

St. Louis, August, 1875. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



CHAPTER I. Personal Pronouns (Eigennamen). (9-13.) 

1. Words denoting definite objects 9-1 1 

2. Exercises in using proper nouns 12-13 

3. Exercises in recognizing proper nouns 13 

CHAPTER II. Common Nouns {Gailungsnamen). (14-16.) 

1. Words denoting objects indefinitely 14 

2. Exercises in using common nouns 15 

3. Exercises in recognizing common nouns 16 

CHAPTER III. Participial Nouns {Mittelworter). 
(17-18.) 

1. Acts and states regarded as objects 17 

a. Two forms of participial nouns 17 

2. Exercises in using participial nouns 18 

3. Exercises in recognizing participial nouns 18 

CHAPTER IV. Number (Zahl). (19-25.) 

1. Objects thought as one or many . . 19 

a. Objects thought as single things 19 

b. Singular and plural (Einzahl und MeArza/il) 19 

2. Exercises in the pluralizing of words 20-25 

a. General Rule „ 20 

b. Euphonic changes ....21-22 

c. Special Rules .. 22-25 

1. Symbols. 2. Irregular Plurals. 3. Double Plurals. 

4. Peculiar Forms without s. 5. Peculiar Forms 
with s. 6. Compound Nouns. 7. Miscellaneous 
Words 22-25 

3. Exercises in recognizing number 25 



° CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER V. Gender {Geschlecht). (26-34.) 

1. The sex of objects 26-27 

A. — External characteristics 26 

I. Male objects. 2. Female objects. 3. Objects with- 
out sex 26 

B. — Internal characteristics 27 

2. The gender of nouns 28 

a. Masculine {manlich). b. Feminine {weiblich). c. 
Neuter {sachlich) 28 

3. Exercises in recognizing gender 29-30 

4. Corresponding genders _ 3 I_ 34 

a. Royal titles, b. Titles of nobility, c. Titles of respect, 
d. Legal titles. e. Family relations. f. Social rela- 
tions, g. Mythic and religious titles. h. Animals. 
i. Miscellaneous 3 I_ 34 

CHAPTER VI Personal Pronouns (Jersonliche Fur- 
worter). (35-38.) 

1 . Words denoting objects without naming them - 35-36 

a. First person {erste Person), b. Second person (zweite 

Person), c. Third person (dritte Person) 37 

2. Accidents (Formwechseln) of personal pronouns 37 

a. Table of personal pronouns 37 

3. Exercises in using personal pronouns 38 

4. Exercises in recognizing personal pronouns 38 

CHAPTER VII. Transitive {zielende) and Intransitive 
(ziellose) Verbs. (39-40.) 

1. Kinds of words expressing energies 39 

a. Intransitive, b. Transitive 39 

2. Exercises in using verbs 40 

3. Exercises in recognizing verbs 40 

CHAPTER VIII. Objective Elements (Ermnzunzen). 
(41-44.) 

1. Words denoting the objects of acts 4 I_ 4 2 

A. — Direct object 4 I_ 4 2 

a. The object of cognition, b. The passive object, c. The 

object of effect, d. The object of kindred meaning. 

B. — Indirect object 4 2 

2. Exercises in using objective elements 43 

3. Exercises in recognizing objective elements t - - - 44 



CONTENTS. 7 

CHAPTER IX. Limiting Adjectives {bestimmende Ad- 
jektiven). (45-47.) 

1. Words determining the application of nouns 45 

a. Qualifying Adjectives, b. Proper Adjectives, c. Ad- 

j ective Pronouns 45 

A. — Words showing which one or which ones 46 

B. — Words showing how many 46 

2. Exercises in using limiting adjectives 46-47 

3. Exercises in recognizing limiting adjectives 47 

CHAPTER X. Adjective Elements (Beifugungen). 
(48-54.) 

1. Words used adjectively - 48-52 

A. — Possessives. Inferences 48-50 

a. Rule for forming the possessive case 50' 

b. Model for writing possessives 50 

B. — Appositives. Inferences 51 

C. — Nouns denoting qualities 5 2 

2. Exercises in using adjective elements 53 

a. Relative position of adjective elements 54 

3. Exercises in recognizing adjective elements 54 

CHAPTER XI. Adverbs (Utnstandsworter). (55-61.) 

1. Words limiting verbs , 55—56 

a. Circumstantial Adverbs - 56 

b. Intensive Adverbs 56 

A. — Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs 57—58 

B. — Formation of the Comparative and Superlative 58-59 

I. Rule for Adjectives. 2. Irregular Adjectives. 3. Ad- 
verbs compared 59 

C. — Position of Adverbs 60 

2. Exercises in using adverbs 60 

3. Exercises in recognizing adverbs 61 

CHAPTER XII. Adverbial Elements (Bestimmungs- 
worter). ^61-64.) 

1. Words used adverbially 61-63 

A. — Nouns of Quantity 62 

B. — Participial Nouns 63 

2. Exercises in using adverbial elements 63 

3. Exercises in recognizing adverbial- elements 64 



TO THE TEACHEE 



As this Circle covers the work of one grade, it is important 
that teachers should carry out its method faithfully. 

One exercise is enough for a lesson. 

The teacher, in the absence of a better method, might adopt 
one like the following : 

i. Require the lesson to be prepared at home. 
• 2. At the recitation, examine each pupil's preparation as to 
quantity and quality and .credit him accordingly. As there 
are generally ten sentences to be written, on the scale of ioo 
per cent, each perfect sentence should count 10 per cent. 
From this, i per cent, should be deducted for each mistake 
in spelling, punctuation and capitals. Five per cent, should be 
deducted for a mistake in applying the principle involved in 
the exercise. 

3. Each pupil should have a blank book, to be kept by the 
teacher, into which all the corrected exercises should be copied 
at stated times. This would promote a habit of neatness and 
accuracy. 

4. The book gives matter and method — in the main, it tells 
teacher and pupil what to do and how to do it, while at the 
same time, the live teacher will find ample opportunity, in 
connection with each lesson, to present other material and 
original illustrations. 

5. Questions in review should be asked in connection with 
each exercise. 

jy In conclusion the author wishes to say that the book is 
made from the teacher's point of view, and is constructed out 
of material acquired in actual teaching. 



CHAPTER I. 
Proper Nouns (Eigennamen). 



A Sentence is a word or a combination of words in which 
something is said of an object. 

Every sentence consists of two parts, viz. : 

i. The Subject, that is, the word or the group of words 

denoting the object about which something is said. 
2. The Predicate, that is, the word or the group of words 
which asserts something about the object. 

Exercise. 

Sy Let the teacher dictate the following story, and let the 
class write it and mark the subject and predicate in each sen- 
tence : 

THE LION AND THE MOUSE. 

A weary lion lay down to rest under an oak. While he slept, a number 
of mice ran over his back and waked him. The lion angrily put his foot 
on one of them, and was about to kill the tiny creature. The mouse 
begged the lion to spare its life. Finally the lion let the trembling creature 
go. Soon after this, the lion was caught in a net set for him. He strug- 
gled to free himself, but in vain. At this juncture, the same little mouse 
approached him. The mouse had come to relieve the lion. He gnawed 
the strong cords asunder and thus released the king of beasts. 

Note to Teacher. — Let the pupils exchange papers, and compare 
the spelling, capitals and punctuation. 

§y Let each pupil make written lists of the nouns, verbs and 
adjectives m the above exercise. 



10 SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Exercise I. 



Let the following sentences be written on the blackboard : 
i. Thomas Jefferson drafted the Declaration of Indepen- 
dence. 

2. Columbus discovered America. 

3. John Howard Payne wrote Home, Sweet Home. 

4. The Saragossa Sea is in the Atlantic Ocean. 

5. Berlin is the Capital of the German Empire. 

6. John Milton wrote Samson Agonistes. 

7. The Volga rises in the Valdai Hills. 

8. The Illinois and St. Louis Bridge spans the Mississippi 
River. 

Bdp 3 Let the pupil select all the names from these sentences, and 
tell which name persons ? places ? natural divisions ? noted 
writings ? prominent objects ? 

Exercise II. 



Let some pupil copy the following sente?ices o?i the black- 
board: 

1. The Bon Homme Richard was commanded by John 
Paul Jones. 

2. The Rocky Mountains are in North America. 

3. Mississippi means Father of Waters. 

4. Bunker Hill Monument is near Boston. 

5. The West is growing in influence. 

6. Marshall McMahon is President of the French Republic. 

7. Shakespeare wrote the Merry Wives of Windsor. 

8. The First Presbyterian Church is in Lucas Place. 

£y Let the pupil select all the names, a?id tell what objects 
they name. 

Model. — The Bon Homme Richard was the name of a ship. 

|£y From these exercises we may infer that the name of a 
definite object consists of a word or a group of words. 



SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 11 

1. Words Denoting Definite Objects. 

I. The subject maybe a word or a group of words denoting 
a definite object, viz. : 

i. The subject may denote a person; as, Bayard Taylor, 
Lord Byron, U. S. Grant, William Cullen Bryant, 
George William Curtis. 

2. The subject may denote a place or any natural division 
of land or water ; as, St. Louis, London, New York, 
Frankfort-on-the-Mai?i, North Cape, the River Rhine. 

3. The subject may denote a political division; as, The 

United States of America, France, Germa?iy, Great 
Britain, The Argentine Republic, Missouri. 

4. The subject may denote a Corporation or Firm; as. 

The City of Si. Louis, The First National Bank of 
Philadelphia, Messrs. Wm. Barr & 1 Co. 

5. The subject may denote a Section of Country ; as, 
The Fast, the South, New Fngland, the Gulf Stales, 
the Northwest. 

6. The subject may denote a prominent individual ob- 
ject; as, l^he Bridge, the Merchants' -Exchange, the 
Central High School, Shaw's Gardeti, Lafayette Park. 

fy Such words as the above are called Proper Nouns. 
Hence — 

Definition. — A word or a group' of words which 
of itself names a definite object, is called a Proper 
Noun. 

RULES FOR CAPITALS. 

1. Begin every proper noun with a capital. 

2. Begin each significant part of a proper noun with a cap- 
ital. 

Remark. — This rule covers all noted events in history, as well as all 
titles of subjects. 



12 SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. Naming Definite Objects. 
Exercise I. 



Let each pupil write ten sentences containing the names 
of persons. 

Model. — Charles Francis Adams, a son of John Quincy 
Adams, was one of the Geneva Arbitrators. 

Remark. — Pupils should be required to describe actual personages, 
either living or historical. 

Exercise II. 



Let each pupil write sentences describing ten important 
cities. 

Model. — New York, situated on Manhattan Island, is the 
largest city in America. It was named after James II, who 
was then known as the Duke of York. 

Remark. — To prepare these exercises will require investigation. The 
teacher should direct the pupil so that he may find suitable information. 
Let pupils consult their geographies and find out all they cnn about cities. 

Exercise III. 

|y Let each pupil write sentences describing ten countries or 
States. 

Model. — Pennsylvania was called the Keystone State, be- 
cause it occupied a'middle place between the States north and 
east of it and those south of it. If the thirteen original States 
are arranged in the form of an arch, she will occupy the cen- 
tral position. 

Exercise IV. 

jy Let each pupil write sente?ices describing ten sections of 
country. 

Model. — New England was settled by Pilgrims and Puri- 
tans from England. 



SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 13 

Exercise V. 

Let each pupil write sentences describing ten noted cor- 
porations or firms. 

Model. — The Union Pacific Railroad Company bound the 
East to the West with bands of iron. 

Exercise VI. 

fiy Let each pupil write sentences describing ten noted ob- 
jects. 

Model. — The Colossus of Rhodes was accounted one of 
the Seven Wonders of the World. 

3. The Recognition of Proper Nouns. 

Exercise I. 

^y Let the pupil select the proper nouns from the following 
extract : 

Heralds swiftly transmitted the war message. It was never 
suffered to droop till it had been borne North, and South, and 
East, and West. The summons hurried from New Hamp- 
shire over the Green Mountains to New York. In another 
day it reached Philadelphia; thence it was carried to Balti- 
more and Annapolis. The message crossed the Potomac 
near Mount Vernon, and it did not halt till it reached 
Williamsburg. It traversed the Dismal Swamp to Nanse- 
mond, along the route of the first emigrants to North Carolina. 

Exercise II. 

fy Let the pupil select all the proper nouns from his reading 
lesson. 



14 SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

CHAPTER II. 

Common Nouns (Gattungsnamen). 

1. Words Denoting Indefinite Objects. 

II. The subject may be a word denoting objects indefinitely, 
viz. : 

i. The subject may denote a kind of material substance 
without reference to definite limits; as, wood, stone, 
clay, marble, iron, gold, mud, dust, silver, brick, gravel, 
sand, water, air. 

Remark. — Words denoting the kind of substance are called Material 
Nouns (Stoffhamen). 

2. The subject may denote a group of objects or a col- 
lection of things ; as, class, army, baggage, forest, news, 
greens, tribe, swarm. 

Remark. — Words denoting collections or groups are called Collective 
Nouns (Sammelnamen). 

3. The subject may denote a quality thought to be a sep- 
arate object ; as, sweetness, mercy, truth, wisdom, 
friendship, freedom, acidity, co?ifidence, strength. 

Remark. — Words denoting attributes thought to be separate entities 
are called Abstract Nouns. 

4. The subject may denote any one or all of several sim- 
ilar objects ; as, man, woman, child, book, dog, horse, 
animal. 

Remark. — Words which denote classes of objects, and require the 
addition of another word to make them signify definite objects, are called 
Common Nouns {Gattungsnamen). 

Hence — 

Definition. — A word which notes objects in- 
definitely, is called a Common Noun. 



SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 15 

2. Naming Indefinite Objects. 

Exercise I. 

Let the pupil write sentences describing ten material 
substances. 

Model. — Gold is occasionally found in large masses. 
There is now in the Imperial Cabinet at St. Petersburgh a 
lump weighing eighty pounds. 

Exercise II. 

I2P" Let the pupil write sentences describing ten groups or col- 
lections. 

Model. — A forest consists of an extensive tract of land 
covered with trees and undergrowth. 

Exercise III. 

t^p 3 Let the pupil write sentences containing the names of 
qualities regarded as separate entities. 

Model. — Transparency is that quality of bodies which 
enables one to see through them. 

Exercise IV. 

ISp 3 Let the pupil write ten sentences using words denoting 
classes of objects. 

Model. — A bird is a two-legged, winged, feathered animal. 

Exercise V. 

^p 3 Let the pupil write a composition of ten sentences about 
some familiar object. 



16 SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. The Recognition of Proper and Common Nouns. 
Exercise I. 



Let the pupil select the nouns from, the following sen- 
tences and tell which are proper nouns and which are com- 
mon nouns : 

The friends of Reason and the guides of Youth, 
Whose language breathed the eloquence of Truth ; 
Whose life, beyond preceptive wisdom, taught 
The great in conduct and the pure in thought ; 
These now by memory to Fame consigned, 
Still speak and act, the models of mankind. 

Trust me, Clara Vere de Vere, 

From yon blue heavens above us blent, 
The gardener Adam and his wife 

Smile at the claims of long descent. 
Howe'er it be, it seems to me, 

'Tis only noble to be good ; 
Kind hearts are more than coronets, 

And simple faith than Norman blood. 

Exercise II. 

I^p 3 Let the pupil select all the nouns from the following ex^ 
tract and tell their kind : 

O, Pericles ! in vain the feast is spread : 
To mirth and joy the afflicted soul is dead. 
The billows of the deep-resounding sea 
Burst o'er our heads, and drown our revelry ; 
Grief swells our veins with pangs unfelt before ; 
But Jove's high clemency reserves in store 
All-suffering patience for his people's cure : 
The best of healing balms is— TO endure. 

Exercise III. 

HP Let the teacher require the pupil to select all the nouns 
from the reading lesson and tell, their kind. 



SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR 17 

CHAPTER III. 

Participial Nouns (Mittelwdrter). 

1. Acts or States Regarded as Objects. 

III. The subject may denote the doing of an act or the 
existing of a state regarded as a separate entity. 

Examples (Beispiele). 

Digging potatoes is hard work. 

To learn to read requires much labor. 

Writing letters is a useful exercise. 

The work of forming the orator consists in observing and 
correcting his daily manners. 

The words in Italics are called Participial Nouns. Such 
words are therefore forms of the verb used substantively ; that 
is, the attribute which they express is regarded as having sep- 
arate existence. Hence — 

Definition. — A word which expresses an act or 
state as a separate entity, is called a Participial 
Nonn. 

Remark. — Participial Nouns have two forms, viz. : 

i. The form in ing, which denotes the doing of an act 
or the existing of a state ; as, laughing, coughing, sing- 
ing, being, becoming. 

2. The form preceded by the particle to, which ex- 
presses an act or state indefinitely; as, to laugh, to 
cough, to sing. 

Suggestioh. — Asa • ' word i8a sound significant, of which no part is of 
itself significant, ' ' and the particle to before the verb has no meaning of itself, 
it should constitute a part of the following word, and be connected to it by a 
hyphen. Thus : to-read, to-sing, t<nvrite. This would prevent ambiguity. 

2 



18 SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. Use of Participial Nouns. 

Exercise I. 

iy Let the pupil write ten sentences containing participial 
nouns ending in ing. 

Model. — Singing and dancing are expressive of joy. 

Exercise II. 

|y Let the pupil write ten sentences cojitaining participial 
nouns with to prefixed. 

Model. — To hear well is an important part of the art of 
conversation. 

3. The Recognition of Participial Nouns. 

Exercise I. 

iy Let the pupil select the participial nouns from the follow^ 
ing sentences : 

i. There is a difference between pushing out the hand 
and moving it in flowing circles. 

2. The love of knowledge comes with reading. 

3. There is pleasure in looking at the clouds. 

4. To be or not to be, is the question. 

5. He sat watching the clouds and thinking of the past. 

6. To be loved makes not to love again. 

7. True knowledge consists in knowing things. 

8. It is more difficult to keep than to acquire wealth. 



Exercise II. 
Let the pupil select the participial nouns from his reading 



lessons. 



SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 19 

CHAPTER IV. 

Number {ZaM). 

1. Objects are One or Many. 

When objects have a marked individuality, and are dissim- 
ilar, they are thought as single things. But when objects are 
alike, the mind groups them together, and notes them by a 
single term. This natural unity and plurality of objects gives 
rise to number in grammar. 

The following kinds of objects are thought as single things : 
i. All material substances; as, gold, dust, molasses, silver. 

2. The names of the arts and sciences; as, music, paint- 
ing, mathematics, optics. 

3. Pure numbers ; as, one, two, three. 

Remark. — Pure numbers represent one unit or one collection of 
units, and hence are singular ; as, Thirty is a number. 

4. The names of qualities or actions; as, brightness, 
writing. 

5. All proper nouns. 

6. The word news. 

When a word refers to similar objects, it usually has two 
forms, one to denote a single object, and another to denote 
two or more objects. The form which is used when a word 
refers to one object, is called the Singular Number (Einzahl). 
The form which is used when two or more objects are brought 
before the mind, is called the Plural Number (Mehrzahl). 

The process of changing the form of a word to show that 
it refers to more than one object, is called pluralizing. 

Remark. — Most nouns, pronouns, verbs, and the definitives this and 
that may be pluralized. 



20 



SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



2. The Pluralizing of Words. 



Exercise I. 



Let the teacher write the following sentences on the 



blackboard : 

Singular. 

i. This girl sings. 
That boy runs. 
This bird flies. 
That car goes. 
This judge judges. 



Plural. 

2. These girls sing. 
4. Those boys run. 
6. These birds fly. 
8. Those cars go. 
10. These judges judge. 



By examining these sentences, we find that the plural of 
nouns and the singular of verbs expressing present time is 
expressed by suffixing s with certain euphonic changes. 

Hence we infer — 

GENERAL RULE. 

The plural of most nouns and the singular of verbs ex- 
pressing present time is formed by suffixing s. 

Exercise II. 



Let the pupil change the following sentences into their 



plural form: 

i. This tree grows. 
3. This horse trots. 
5. The bird soars. 
7. The ball rolls. 
9. A child creeps. 
Model. — These trees grow. 



2. That rose blooms. 
4. That girl plays. 
6. The girl sews. 
8. The cat jumps. 
10. A rat gnaws. 



SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 21 

Exercise III. 

Let the pupil change the following sentences into their 
singular form. 

i. Those cats mew. 2. These books wear out. 

3. The apples rot. 4. Those grapes decay. 
5. Those eagles scream. 6. These bayonets gleam. 

7. These waters roar. 8. These boys write. 

9. Those corks float. 10. These pears ripen. 

Exercise IV. 

\3TLet the pupil change the number form of the following 
sentences : 

1. The clock ticks. 2. That boat glides. 

3. Those leaves fall. 4. The kite descends. 

5. Cataracts roar. 6. The boys read. 

7. This plant withers. 8. That egg breaks. 

EUPHONIC CHANGES. 

E is inserted before s in four cases, viz. : 
I. With a change of the final vowel. 
II. With a change of the final consonant. 
III. Without any change. 
IV. After j, ch, z, s, sh, and x, forming a separate syllable. 

I. When a noun or verb ends in y preceded by a conso- 
nant, change y to i before suffixing es ; as, That fly flies; 
Those flies fly . 

II. Sixteen nouns ending in the sound of f, change f to 
v, and suffix es for the plural, viz. : Beef calf elf half knife, 
life, loaf leaf sheaf, self shelf staff, thief, wife, wolf and 
wharf ; as, calf, calves ; leaf, leaves. 



22 SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

III. Nouns and verbs ending in i, o, or u, preceded by a 
consonant, usually take e before s .- as, The gnu goes ; The 
gnues go. 

IV. When a noun or verb ends in the sound of j=dge, ch, 
s=ss, ce or se, z, sh, or x, the e forms a separate syllable with 
s ; as, Brush, brushes ; box, boxes. 

Exercise V. 

£y Let the pupil write sentences using the following words in 
the plural: 

Church, brush, bush, box, judge, license, cry, watch, con- 
science, crush. 

Model. — There are many churches in St. Louis. 

Exercise VI. 

12^" Let the pupil write sentences using the following words in 
the singular „• 

Heroes, go, ladies, scratch, geographies, houses, browse, 
lounge, topazes, hiss. 

Model. — Calico is a kind of cotton cloth. 

Exercise VII. 
£y Let the pupil write sentences using the words in No. II 
in the plural. 

Model. — Leaves have their time to fall. 

SPECIAL RULES FOR NOUNS. 

1. The Pluralizing of Symbols. 

Letters, marks, signs, figures and symbols are pluralized by 
suffixing 's; as, Make your m's plai?ier ; 1 have no .'s {periods). 

Exercise VIII. 
X^T Let the pupil write sentences containing the folloiving in the 
plural: +, 7, i, — , t, z, 0, 5, p, q. 



SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 23 

2. Irregular Plurals. 

Nine nouns have irregular plurals, viz. : 

Singular: foot, goose, tooth, louse, mouse, man, woman, child, ox. 

Plural: feet, geese, teeth, lice, mice, men, women, children, oxen. 

Exercise IX. 

|y Let the pupil change the following sentences into the 
plural: 

i. My foot is sore. 2. The goose swims. 

3. His tooth aches. 4. The child catches a mouse. 

5. The man has an ox. 6. The woman crochets. 

3. Double Plurals. 

Eight nouns have two forms for the plural differing in 
meaning, viz.: 

Brother brothers {of same family) brethren {of same society). 

Cow cows {more than one) kine {poetic use). 

Die dies (for coining) dice {for gaming). 

Fish fishes (more than one) fish (quantity). 

Geinus geniuses (talented men) genii (spirits). 

Index indexes (tables of contents) indices (exponents). 

Pea peas (more than one) pease (species). 

Penny pennies (pieces of money) pence (Eng. cur). 

Exercise X. 

By Let the pupil write sentences showing the uses of these 
double plurals. 

Model. — The kine gambol at high noon, but cows yield 
milk, cream, butter and cheese. 



24 SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

4. Peculiar Forms without s. 

Twenty words do not take s in the plural, viz. : 

Names of Certain Animals : Deer, grouse, neat, salmon, 

sheep, swine, trout, and vermin. 

Names of Collections ; Baggage, brace, couple, dozen, fry, 

gross, head, pair, sail, score, span and yoke. 

Exercise XI. 

]£3tLet the pupil write sentences containing the above words in 
the plural. 

Model. — A great many deer were shot. His baggage con- 
sists of trunks, valises and bundles. 

5. Peculiar Forms with s. 

Twelve words do not drop s in the singular, viz. : Amends, 
apparatus, alms, bellows, corps, gallows, means, oats, odds, pains, 
series and species. 

Exercise XII. 

B5P Let the pupil write sentences containing these words in 
the singular. 

Model. — The series is unending. The amends which he 
made is satisfactory. 

6. Compound Nouns. 

In compound nouns, the part described is pluralized; as, 
ox-cart, ox-carts ; cup-ful, cup-fuls ; brother-in-law, brothers- 
in-law. If both parts are equally prominent, both are plural- 
ized; as, man-servant, men-servants ; knight-templar, knights- 
templars. 

Exercise XII. 

^^Let the pupil write the plural form of the following nouns : 
Father-in-law, handful, general-in-chief, grand-father, water- 
bucket, German, Frenchman, Mussulman, woman-servant, 
stove-pipe. 



SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



25 



7. Miscellaneous Words. 

Many words with their peculiar plurals have been adopted 
from other languages, among which the following are in 
general use, viz. : 



Sing. 


Plur. 


Sing. 


Plur. 


alumnus 


alumni 


datum 


data 


analysis 


analyses 


erratum 


errata 


axis 


axes 


focus 


foci 


basis 


bases 


genus 


genera 


bandit 


banditti 


miasma 


miasmata 


beau 


beaux 


radius 


radii 


cherub 


cherubim 


seraph 


seraphim 


criterion 


criteria 


virtuoso 


virtuosi 



Exercise XIV. 
iy Let the pupil write sentences showing the use of these 
words. 

Model. — An Alumnus is a graduate of a school. 

3. The Recognition of Number. 

Exercise I. 
£J1P Let the pupil select the nouns and verbs and tell their 
number ; also, how the plural is formed. 

i. The wolves, regaining their feet, spring toward me. 

2. The race was renewed for twenty yards. 

3. Light flashes of snow spin from my skates. 

4. Bright faces are awaiting my return. 

5. Their tongues are lolling out, their white tusks are 
gleaming from their bloody mouths, and their eyes 
are gleaming. 

Exercise II. 
ISP Let the picpil select the nouns and verbs from his reading 
lesson and tell whether they are singular or plural. 



26 SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

CHAPTER V. 
Gender (Geschlecht). 

1. The Sex of Objects. 

A. — EXTERNAL CHARACTERISTICS. 

&r Let the teacher call the attention of the pupil to the differ- 
ence in the clothing, voice, size and hair of persons; also, to the 
nature and appearance of animals. 

Boys wear coats. Girls wear dresses. 

Boys wear caps. Girls wear bonnets. 

Boys have short hair. Girls have long hair. 

Boys are robust. Girls are delicate. 

Boys sing alto. Girls sing soprano. 

Now, by such characteristics, children are distinguished as 
males and females. Among the birds of larger size, the male 
is generally of greater size and has more brilliant plumage 
than the female. The male of the larger animals is distin- 
guished from the female by size, horns and hair. The smaller 
animals do not differ much in outward appearance, and hence 
are regarded as having no sex. 

Guided by marks like these, objects are divided into three 
classes, viz. : 

i. Male objects. 

2. Female objects. 

3. Objects without sex. 

Exercise. 

Ey Let the pupils name objects of the male sex; of the 
female sex ; without sex. 



SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 27 

B.— INTERNAL CHARACTERISTICS. 

Animals differ not Only in external marks, but also in certain 
internal qualities, and hence inanimate objects are frequently 
regaided as males or females. 

Objects are thought to be males under the following circum- 
stances : 

i. When they are conspicuous for imparting or communi- 
cating; as, the Sun, God, the Ocean, ALther. 

2. When they are naturally active, strong and efficacious ; 
as, Time, Death, Sleep, Life. 

Objects are thought to be females under the following cir- 
cumstances : 

i. When they are conspicuous for receiving, containing or 
producing ; as, the Moon, the Earth, Ships and other 
marine vessels, cities, towns, states and countries. 

In England rivers all are males — 

For instance Father Thames, 
Whoever in Columbia sails 

Finds them ma'mselles or dames. 
Yes, there the softer sex presides, 

Aquatic, I assure ye, 
And Mrs. Sippy rolls her tides 

Responsive to Miss Souri. 

2. When they are naturally passive, amiable or beautiful ; 
as, Virtue, Faith, Hope, Charity, Temperance. 

3. When they are passions noted for excesses; as, 

Here stood Ill-nature, like an ancient maid, 
Her wrinkled form in black and white arrayed. 
There Affectation with a sickly mien, 
Shows in her cheek the roses of eighteen. 



28 SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. The Gender of Nouns. 

Sex is a quality of objects ; gender is a quality of nouns. 

Nouns, with regard to the sex of the object represented, are 
masculine (mannlich), feminine (weiblich), or neuter (sachlich). 

A noun is of the masculine gender, when it denotes a male 
or an object thought to be a male. 

EXAMPLES (Beispiele). 

John told his father what his uncle said. 
Me Time hath bent, that sorry Artist, he 
That surely makes whate'er he handles, worse. 
Thames, with pride, surveys his rising towers. 

A noun is of the feminine gender, when it denotes a female 
or an object thought to be a female. 

EXAMPLES (Beispiele). 

Mary gave her mother what her aunt sent. 
Their parent Country in her bosom holds 
Their wearied bodies. 
When Music, heavenly Maid, was young, 
While yet in early Greece she sung. 

A noun is of the neuter gender, when it denotes a sexless 
object or an object to which no sex is attributed. 

EXAMPLES {Beispiele). 

Trees bear apples, peaches, plums, cherries and pears. 
Hoops, ropes, dolls and balls are playthings. 

The child is beautiful. Its hair is black and curly ; its eyes are dark, 
and its features are perfect. 



SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 29 

3. The Recognition of Gender. 

Exercise I. 

fy Let the pupil select the nouns from the following extract 
and tell their kind and gender. 

First in his east the glorious lamp was seen, 

Regent of day, and all the horizon round 

Invested with bright rays, jocund to run 

His longitude through heaven's high road; the gray 

Dawn, and the Pleiades, before him danced, 

Shedding sweet influence : less bright the moon, 

But opposite in levelled west was set 

His mirror, with full face borrowing her light 

From him ; for other light she needed none. 



Exercise II. 

£3P Let the pupil select the nouns from the following extracts 
and tell their gender and kind. 

How charming is divine philosphy ! 

Not harsh and crabbed as dull fools suppose ; 

But musical as is Apollo's lute, 

And a perpetual feast of nectared sweets, 

Where no crude surfeit reigns. 

Mortals, that would follow me, 
Love Virtue ; she alone is free : 
She can teach you how to climb 
Higher than the sphery chime ; 
Or, if Virtue feeble were 
Heaven itself would stoop to her. 



30 SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Exercise III. 

' Let the pupil select the nouns from the following exercises 
and tell their gender : 

Good-by to Flattery's fawning face ; 
• To Grandeur, with his wise grimace 
To upstart Wealth's averted eye ; 
To supple Office, low and high ; 
To crowded halls, to court and street ; 
To frozen hearts and hasting feet; 
To those who go and those who come ; 
Good-by, proud world ! I'm going home. 



Exercise IV. 

Let the pupil select all the nouns from the following sen- 
tences and tell their gender : 

Madness, with his frightful scream, 

Vengeance leaning on his lance, 
Avarice, with his blade and beam, 

Hatred, blasting with a glance, 
Remorse that weeps, and Rage that roars, 
And Jealousy that dotes, but dooms and murders, yet adores, 
Mirth, his face with sunbeams lit, 

Waking laughter's merry swell, 
Arm in arm with fresh- eyed Wit, 

That waves his tingling lash, while Folly shakes his bell. 



Exercise V. 

iy Select a piece in the Reader and require the gender of all 
the nouns to be given. 



SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 31 

4. Corresponding Genders. 

Many correlative terms have been originated to express the 
distinctions between males and females in the relations they 
sustain to the state, to the family and to society. As it is im- 
portant that the pupil should learn the form and use of these 
terms, they are presented in classified lists in the following 
exercises : 

Exercise I. 

Royal Titles. — Czar, czarina ; sultan, sultana ; emperor, empress ; 
kaiser, kaiserinn ; king, queen ; czarowitz, czarowitzina ; dauphin, dau- 
phiness; infante, infanta; prince, princess. 

|5P Let the pupil write sentences using the masculine forms, 
and then substitute the corresponding feminine form, making the 
proper changes. 

Model. — Infante is the title of all the sons of the kings of 
Spain and Portugal, except the eldest, who is called Prince of 
Asturias, just as the heir- apparent to the British crown is 
called Prince of Wales. 

Model. — Prior to 1830 the eldest son of the king of France 
was called dauphin. 

Changed. — The wife of the dauphin was called dauphiness. 

Exercise II. 

Titles of Nobility. — Elector, electoress ; duke, duchess ; earl (count), 
countess ; landgrave, landgravine ; marquis, marchioness ; margrave, mar- 
gravine ; viscount, viscountess ; baron, baroness. 

£y Let the pupil write sentences using the masculine forms 
of these words. Let him then substitute the feminine form. 

Model. — A margrave was a keeper of the marches, and is 
the German equivalent of the English marquis. 

Changed. — A margravine {Eng. marchioness) was a mar- 
grave's wife. 



32 SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Exercise III. 

Titles of Respect.— Lord, Lady (Eng.); Don, Dona {Span.); Signior, 
Signiora (Ital.); Monsieur, Madame or Mademoiselle (Fr.); Herr, Frau 
or Fraulein (Ger.); Mister (Mr.), Mistress (Mrs.) or Miss (Am.); Master 
and Miss are applied to boys and girls. 

RULE FOR CAPITALS. 

Begin every title, when applied to a person, with a capital. 

Ey Let the pupil write sentences showing the use of these 
titles. 

Model. — Ladies of every degree are addressed Mrs., and 
spoken to as madam, contracted into ma'am ; as, yes, ma'am ; 
no, ma'am. 

Exercise IV. 

Legal Titles. — Administrator, administratrix ; arbitrator, arbitratrix ; 
executor, executrix ; mediator, mediatrix ; prosecutor, prosecutrix ; re 
lator, relatrix ; testator, testatrix. 

jy Let the pupil write sentences showing the use of these 
legal titles. 

Model. — The testator appointed his wife his executrix. 

Changed. — The testatrix appointed her husband executor. 

Exercise V. 

Family Relations. — Husband, wife (spouse); goodman, goody ; father, 
mother ; papa, mamma ; brother, sister ; son, daughter ; uncle, aunt ; 
nephew, niece; 

Remark i. — The term grand is prefixed when the relationship is 
removed one degree ; as, grandfather, granduncle, grandson. 

Remark 2. —When the relationship is by marriage, the term in-law 
is sometimes suffixed ; as, son-in-law, mother-in-law. 



SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 33 

Remark 3. — The prefix step denotes relationship arising out of 
orphanage. The pupil should note the difference between a step-sister and 
a half-sister. 

Remark 4. — The German has separate terms for male and female 
cousins. We distinguish by saying cousin John or cousin Mary. 



Let the pupil write sentences illustrating the use of 
these words. 

Model. — Goodman is a rustic term of compliment. 

" Plain Goody would no longer down; 
'Twas Madam in her grogram gown." 

Exercise VI. 

Social Relations.— Male, female ; man, woman ; gentleman, lady ; boy, 
girl ; youth, maiden ; lad, lass ; bachelor, maid (spinster); beau, belle ; 
swain, nymph; bridegroom, bride; bride's-man, bride's-maid; widower, 
widow ; hero, heroine ; sloven, slattern ; gaffer, gammer. 



Let the pupil write sentences illustrating the use of these 
words. 

Model. — Gaffer is a term applied to old rustics ; as, Gaffer 
Treadwell ; Gammer Gurton's Needle. 

Exercise VII. 

Mythic and Religious Titles. — Abbot, abbess ; anchorite, anchoress ; 
deacon, deaconess ; diviner, diviness ; enchanter, enchantress ; founder, 
foundress ; giant, giantess ; god, goddess ; Jew, Jewess ; monk, nun ; 
priest, priestess ; prior, prioress ; prophet, prophetess ; sorcerer, sorcer- 
ess; wizard, witch. 



Let the pupil write sentences showing the proper use of 
these words. 

Model. — An abbess is not an abbofs wife, but the gov- 
erness of a convent of nuns. 
3 



34 SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Exercise VIII. 

Animals. — Boar, sow; buck, doe; bullock, heifer; bull, cow; cock, 
hen; dog, bitch; drake, duck; gander, goose; hart (stag), hind; lion, 
lioness; milter, spawner; ram, ewe; tiger, tigress; stallion, mare; sire, 
dam; colt, filly. 

Remark. — Gender is sometimes expressed by affixing he or she, man or 
maid, male or female ; as, he-goat, man-servant, male-teacher. 

%^T* Let the piipil write sentences containing these words. 
Model. — A hind is the female of the red-deer ; while the 
female of the fallow-deer is called a doe. 

Exercise IX. 

Miscellaneous. — The occupations which men and women pursue, and the 
offices which they fill, vary in the different ages, so that there are no special 
words in English to express a difference of sex in this respect. When 
it is necessary to do so, it is customary to suffix ess to the masculine form, 
or change its final syllable into ress or tress ; as, heir, heiress; actor, 
actress; negro, negress. 

f^p 3 Let the pupil write the feminine form of the following 
words : 

Ambassador, auditor, author, caterer, conductor, director, 

doctor, editor, host, hunter, instructor, inventor, monitor, 

patron, poet, preceptor, proprietor, shepherd, tailor, tutor, 

waiter. 

Exercise X. 

$3P Let the pupil be required to write the opposite genders of 
any given nouns. 

Model : 

Given Nouns : Beau, duke, marchioness, lass, hind. 

Masculine : Beau, duke. 

Feminine: marchioness, lass, hind. 

Remark. — To master this exercise requires two processes: I. The 
arrangement of the words as above ; and, 2. The actual naming of the 
corresponding opposite genders. 



SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 35 

CHAPTER VI. 

Personal Pronouns (Persdnliche Furworter). 

1. Words Denoting Objects without Naming Them. 

IV. The subject may denote an object participating in the 
discourse, or so related to it as to be readily recognized with- 
out being named. 

EXAMPLES {Beispiele). 

/lost my way as /returned. 
You yourself spoke of your friends. 
He told me that you were expecting them. 
i. The subject may denote a person as speaking of himself. 

Remark. — Words which denote the speaker as speaking, are called 
personal pronouns of the first person ( ersie Person), "because the speaker 
is always principal with respect to his own discourse." 

EXAMPLES (Beisfiele). 

/wrote a letter to my mother. 

He gave me a book. 

Our friends remember us. 

We cling to what is ours. 

1 am myself again. 

We should not think too highly of ourselves. 

Mine are the gardens of earth and sea. 

2. The subject may denote the person to whom the dis- 
course is directed. 

9 

Remark. — Words denoting the object to whom the discourse is direct- 
ed, without naming him, are called personal pronouns of the second person 
(zweite Person), because, "with reference to the discourse, the party 
addressed is next in dignity." 



36 SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXAMPLES (Beispiele). 

Thou hast deceived thy best friend. 

Thine enemies shall not triumph over thee. 

You did not tell me that your book was lost. 

That slate is not yours. 

Cromwell, love thyself last. 

Little children 'keep yourselves from idols. 

3. The subject may denote an object so related to the dis- 
course as to be recognized without being name 1. 

Remark. — Words which denote, but do not name, "cither the speaker 
or the party addressed, but some third object different from both," are called 
personal pronouns of the third person ( dritte Person \ 

EXAMPLES (Beispule). 

He told his father what I bade him say. 

They admired the book you showed them. 

Her mother gave her a new doll. 

// is not his, hers or theirs; it belongs to us. 

Their horses drowned themselves. 

The moth scorched its wings. 

Since personal pronouns imply the presence of other ob- 
jects, either actually or in thought, they always denote related 
objects. Hence — 

Definition. — A word which denotes, but does not 
name, an object, and shows whether the object is the 
speaker himself, the party addressed, or some other 
person or thing, is called a Personal Pronoun. 



SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR 37 

2. Accidents (Formwechseln) of Personal Pronouns. 

Pronouns have person, number, gender, and case {Fall). 
Personal pronouns of the first and the second persons and the 
plural of the third person, have no forms to distinguish males 
from females, because the speaker and the party addressed 
are participants in the discourse, and hence their sex is appar- 
ent. In the third person plural distinction is not necessary. 
In the third person singular, however, it is generally necessary 
to distinguish the sex, and hence we have pronouns for each 
gender. The sentence, He caused him to destroy him, would 
not be intelligible. But let she and it be put in the place of 
he and him, and the sentence becomes clear. Thus : She 
(Thais) caused him (Alexander) to destroy it (Persepolis). 

TABLE OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 



Person. First Person. Second Person. 




Third Person. 


Number. Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. 




Sing. Plur. 


Gender. No special Forms. 


Mas. 


Fern. Neu. No Forms 


Case 






Nominative. I, we, thou, you or ye, 


he, 


she, it, they, 


Possessive. \ m 7' our ' *7« y° u > 
} mine, ours, thme, yours, 


his, 
his, 


her, its, their, 
hers, theirs, 


Objective. me, us, thee, you, 


him 


her, it, them. 



Remark i. — Mine, thine, ours, yours, his, hers, and theirs, are used 
to denote ownership ; as, That book is mine ; Gay hope is theirs. 

Remark 2. — The so-called compound personal pronouns, myself, our- 
self or ourselves, thyself, yourself, or yourselves, himself, herself, itself, 
and themselves, being compounds of the noun self, are really nouns of the 
third person. 



38 SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. Use of Personal Pronouns. 
Exercise I. 

X^T Let the pupil write ten sentences using personal pronouns 
of the first person. 

Model. — My dog bit me. 

Exercise II. 

^P 3 Let the pupil write ten sente?ices using perso?ial pro?wuns 
of the second person. 

Model. — Your brother has the book you gave me. 

Exercise III. 

\x§TLet the pupil write twenty sentences using pronouns of the 
third person — five masculine, five feminine, five neuter, and 
five in the plural ?iumber. 

Model. — John sold him his horse. 

Exercise IV. 

|y Let the pupil change all the nouns, pronouns, and verbs, 

in some paragraph in his reading lesson into the plural number. 

4. The Recognition of Personal Pronouns. 

Exercise I. 

I^ 3 Let the pupil select the pronouns from the following 
sentences : 

i. I was not aware that you sent it to me. 

2. They will send him to his grand-parents. 

3. Did you receive the letter which he wrote you ? 

4. We should always control ourselves. 

5. Thou art gone to thy grave ! We will not deplore thee ! 

Exercise II. 
Hy Let the pupil select all the personal pronouns from his 
reading lessons, a?id tell their person, number, gender and case. 



SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. OV 

CHAPTER VII. 

Transitive (zielende) and Intransitive {ziellose) 
Verbs. 

1. Kinds of Words Expressing Energies. 

We have seen (Chapter VI, First Circle,) that a word 
which expresses the energy of an object is called a Verb. 
The energy expressed may manifest itself in two ways, viz. : 
i. It may not pass out of the object. 

2. It may pass from one object to another. 

EXAMPLES {Beispiele). 

He lies on the ground. He lays his book on the ground. 

He rises from his seat. He raises a flag to its place. 

He sits on a chair. He sets the chairs in order. 

He sleeps soundly. He puts the child to sleep. 

Words which express the energies of objects are therefore 
of two kinds. When the energy does not pass out of the 
object which manifests it, the word expressing it is called an 
Intransitive Verb. But when the energy cognizes, affects or 
produces some other object, the word expressing it is called a 
Transitive Verb. Hence — 

Definition. — A word which expresses an energy 
which does not pass out of the object which mani- 
fests it, is called an Intransitive Verb. 

Definition.— A word which expresses an energy 
which passes out of the object which manifests it to 
some other object, is called a Transitive Yerb. 

Remark. — Transitive verbs are frequently used without a word de- 
noting the object to which the energy is directed, in which case they should 
be called transitive verbs used intransitively. 



40 SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. Use of Words Expressing Energies. 

Exercise I. 

iy Let the pupil write ten sentences containing intransitive 
verbs. 

Model. — The flock of birds flew rapidly away. 
Exercise II. 

I^p 3 Let the pupil write ten sentences containing transitive 
verbs. 

Model.— The farmer ploughs his fields. 

3. The Recognition of Verbs. 
Exercise I. 



Let the pupil select the verbs from the following sentences, 
and tell which are transitive and which intransitive : 

i. The small boy does what the big boy says. 

2. The man arose as soon as he awoke. 

3. It became his duty to bear the news. 

4. The oxen drew the water, but the cattle drank it. 

5. They began to speak of what was done. 

6. The birds have flown, because winter has come. 

Exercise II. 

ty Let the pupil select the verbs from his reading lessons and 
tell their kind. 



SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 4L 



CHAPTER VIII. 

Objective Elements {Ergtinzungeri). 
1. Words Denoting the Objects of Acts. 

We have seen that the energy expressed by a transitive 
verb passes out of the object which manifests it to some other 
object. This energy may manifest itself in four ways, viz. : 

i. It may be the act by which the object is known. 

2. It may be the act by which the object is affected. 

3. It may be the act by which the object is produced. 

4. The act may externalize itself in a kindred object. 

EXAMPLES (Beispiele). 

1. Acts Cognizing Objects. 

John sees the bird. Frank hears the music. 

Lewis smells the rose. George tastes the peach. 

William touches the ceiling. Henry studies geography. 

James learns printing. He teaches arithmetic. 

2. Acts Affecting Objects. 

John strikes George. The horse pulls the load. 

The farmer ploughs the field. The men quarry stone. 

3. Acts Producing Objects. 

John builds a house. George writes a letter. 

Tailors make clothes. Boys make kites. 

Birds build nests. Authors write books. 



42 SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

4. Acts Producing Kindred Objects. 

He ran a race. He sang a song. 

He struck a blow. He dreamed a dream. 

He heaved a «£#. He shed a /<?tfr. 

He smiled a j^z/<?. He uttered a groan. 

Remark. — This last object is very much like the object of effect, and 
might be identified with it. The object produced, however, results from 
changing existing materials, while the object of kindred meaning is a pure 
creation springing out of the act. 

The object to which the energy expressed by a verb is im- 
mediately directed, is called the Direct Object. 

Remark. — Direct object is a generic term, including the four kinds of 
objects illustrated above, viz. : 

1. The object known by the act, called the object of cognition. 

2. The object affected by the act, called the passive object, 

3. The object produced, called the object of effect. 

4. The object in which the act externalizes itself, called the object of 
kindred meaning. 

Besides the object to which the act is immediately directed, 
an act may be done to or for some person or thing. As this 
object is not immediate, but remote, it is called the Indirect 
Object. 

EXAMPLES {Beispiele). 

My father bought me a ball. Aunt Mary gave her a doll. 
She sold me her book. You taught him arithmetic. He 
showed them the way. They wrote us two letters. 

As such words as these limit the application of the verb, 
that is, determine the act in regard to its objects, they are 
called Objective Elements. Hence — 

Definition. — A noun or pronoun used to denote 
either the immediate or the remote object of the act 
expressed by a verb, is called an Objective Element. 






SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 43 

Remark. — In order to find the objective element, putwhat? whom ? to 
or for what? or to or for whom ? after the verb, and the word answering the 
question is an objective element. Thus : John writes letters. John writes 
what? Ans. Letters. Hence letters is an objective element. 

2. Use of Objective Elements. 

Exercise I. 

i^y Let the pupil fill out the following sentences with suitable 
objective elements. 

i. John wrote 7. Birds build 

2. Boys fly 8. Children read 

3. Girls sing 9. George teaches 

4. Adolf learns 10. Men wear 

5. Bears like 11. Cats catch 

6. Misers love 12. Merchants sell 

Exercise II. 

$2^ Let tne pupil write te?i sentences containing objective ele- 
ments denoting direct objects. 

Exercise III. 

iy Let the pupil fill out each of the following sentences with 
two objective elements. 

1. He sold 7. John bought 

2. He struck 8. Rebecca told 

3. She sang 9. Ada made 

4. You showed 10. Emma will sell 

5. They wrote 11. You gave 

6. We will send 12. They lent 

Exercise IV. 

fy Let the pupil write ten sentences each containing two 
objective elements. 



44 SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. The Recognition of Objective Elements. 
Exercise I. 

^TLet the pupil point out the objective elements in the fol- 
lowing sentences ; 

i. Men have done brave deeds and bards have sung them 
well. 2. I scatter crumbs for the birds and fling them threads. 
3. The Indian hunter pursued the panting deer. 4. Art has 
usurped the bowers of nature. 5. She lent me her book. 

Exercise II. 

%W Let the pupil select the objective elements from the fol- 
lowing extract : 

Nature and art their stores outpoured. 

For friendship there, with stronger chain, 
Devoted hearts already bound 

For good or ill, will bind again. 

Exercise III. 



"Let the pupil select the objective elements from the follow- 
ing sentences : 

1. They brought me several beautiful bouquets. 

2. His father bought him a fine horse. 
2. Mary gave her mother a present. 

4. They promised me a new piano. 

5. My seat-mate lent me his book. 

6. They showed us the parks. * 

7. He offered to sell them his house. 

8. John sent his mother many letters. 

Exercise IV. 

ISp Let the pupil select the objective elements from his read- 
ing lesson. 



SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 45 



CHAPTER IX. 

Limiting Adjectives ( oestimmende Adjektiven). 

1. Words Determining the Application of Nouns. 

Since Common Nouns denote objects indefinitely, certain 
words must be added to them to determine their application 
to particular objects. Thus, should I wish to use the word 
man definitely, I must place this, that, or some similar word 
before it; as, This man is rich, That man is poor, Each man 
is strong. If, however, I change man to men, I must then 
say, These two men are rich, Those five men are poor, using 
two and five to determine just how many persons the word 
men denotes. 

A word thus used to show which object, or how many ob- 
jects a noun represents, is called a Limiting Adjective. 
Hence — 

Definition. — A word joined to a noun to deter- 
mine its application by telling which one or how 
many, is called a Limiting Adjective. 

Remark i. — A word which is joined to a noun or pronoun to tell the 
kind or condition of the object denoted by it, is called a Qualifying Adjec- 
tive. (See First Circle, Chapter VII.) 

Remark 2. — Adjectives derived from proper nouns, such as French 
from France, Swiss from Switzerland, Oxonian from Oxford, and New- 
tonian from Newton, are called Proper Adjectives. All proper adjectives 
begin with capitals. 

Remark 3. — Limiting Adjectives are sometimes used without the 
limited noun, in which case they are called Adjective Pronouns ; as, All 
is not gold that glitters ; MANY are called but FEW are chosen. 



46 SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

A.— WORDS SHOWING WHICH ONE OR WHICH ONES: 

The, this, these, that, those, the former, the latter, the one, 
the other, the same, very, such, yon, yonder, another, both, 
whichever, whichsoever, which, what, first, second, third, 
# # # * ne xt, last. 

B.— WORDS SHOWING HOW MANY 

a. Definitely : 

One, two, three * * * * each, every, no, 
all, dozen, score. 

b. Indefinitely : 

A or an, any, some, several, few, many. 

2. Use of Limiting Adjectives. 

Exercise I. 

I3P Let the pupil complete the following sentences by filling 
the blanks with suitable Limiting Adjectives : 

i. ...ox bears yoke. 7. ...birds built nests. 

2, 

3 

4 

5 
6 



. .lady teaches children. 8. . . .horses make . .team. 

. . carpenter uses saw. 9. . . .boys pick . . .cherries. 

..boy reads book. 10. ...girls have dolls. 

..man rides horse. 11. ...trees have leaves. 

..cat caught rat. 12. ...river has forks. 

Model. — man carries baskets=EACH man carries 

two baskets. 

Exercise II. 

^StLet the pupil write ten sentences using words telling which 
one : 

Model. — The last star had faded from the crown of night. 



SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 47 

Exercise III. 

Let the pupil write ten sentences containing definite num- 
bers. 

Model. — There were fifty persons on the car. 

Exercise IV. 

f^p 3 Let the pupil write ten sentences containing indefinite 
numbers. 

Model. — I have Only a few apples left. 

3. The Recognition of Limiting Adjectives. 
Exercise I. 

H3P Let the pupil select all the Limiting Adjectives from the 
following extract: 

1. There shall be sung another golden age, 

The rise of empire and of arts. 

2. Westward the course of empire takes its way : 

The first four acts already past, 
A fifth shall close the drama with the day : 
Time's noblest offspring is the last. 

Exercise II. 

B3P Let the pupil select the Limiting Adjectives from the fol- 
lowing sentences: 

i. The highest officer commanded the last squadron. 

2. The first man was killed near the next hill. 

3. There were seven boys and one man in that canoe. 

4. That man's youngest child is a girl. 

5. This little twig bore that large red apple. 

Exercise III. 

iy Let the pupil select all the Limiting Adjectives from his 
reading lesson. 



48 SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

CHAPTER X. 
Adjective Elements {Beifugungen). 

1. Words Used Adjectively. 

A.— POSSESSIVES. 

Exercise I. 

%3tLet the teacher write the followifig sentences on the black- 
board : 

i. John's book is torn. 

2. Our apples are ripe. 

3. His kite is finished. 

4. Harry's ball is lost. 

5. Her fan is broken. 

6. Mary's doll is beautiful. 
Let such questions as these be asked — 

Whose book is torn ? Whose apples are ripe ? Whose kite 
is finished ? Whose ball is lost ? Whose fan is broken ? 
Whose doll is beautiful ? 

From these sentences two inferences may be drawn : 

1. A noun or pronoun denoting the possessor may 

limit a noun denoting the thing possessed. 

2. The limiting noun or pronoun takes a peculiar 

form, called the Possessive Case (zweite Fall). 

Remark. — We found (Lesson VI) that pronouns have three forms 
called the nominative, the possessive and the objective. These forms are 
called cases. When a noun or pronoun is used as a subject, the form 
which it takes is called the nominative case. When it denotes the object 
of an act (Lesson VIII), the form which it takes is called the objective 
case. The nominative and the objective forms of nouns are identical. 
The only change which a noun undergoes to show its relation to some 
other word, is the suffixing of 's or the apostrophe (') without 8. Case is 
form, not relation ; nevertheless, the form is determined by the relation. 



SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR 49 

Exercise II. 

Let the following sentences be written on the blackboard : 

i. Solomon's temple was of great renown. 

2. Ladies' gloves are very cheap. 

3. John's uncle is convalescing. 

4. The sun's rays are piercing. 

5. The Thirty Years' War ended in 1648. 

6. The boy's coat was badly torn. 

Remark. — Solomon's temple=the temple built by Solomon. Ladies' 
gloves=gloves adapted to the use of ladies. John's uncle — a person re- 
lated to John by birth or marriage. The sun's rays=rays emanating from 
the sun. The Thirty Years' War=a war lasting thirty years. The boy's 
coat=the coat belonging to the boy. 

From these facts the following inferences may be drawn : 

1 Possessives express other relations than that of 
possessor. 

2. Possessives are placed before nouns to determine 

their application. 

3. Possessives denote objects different from the 

nouns they limit. 

4. Possessives implicitly attribute something to the 

object denoted by the limited noun. 

Exercise III. 

£y Let the following expressions be written on the black- 
board: 

Sing. Plur. 

The boy's slate. The boys' slates. 

The man's shoes. The men's shoes. 

The child's book. The children's books. 

The lady's fan. The ladies' fans. 
4 



50 SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Possessives of Proper Nouns. 

Burns's Poems. Archimedes' screw. 

Davies' Mathematics. Charles's book. 

Moses' anger. Prentice's Poems. 

Sanders' Readers. Hedges' Logic. 

By examining the above examples, we may infer the following 

Rule for Forming the Possessive Case. 

The possessive case of all nouns is formed by suffixing 's to 
the singular or plural form, except that in common nouns 
ending in the sound of s, and proper nouns ending in the 
sounds of eez, ez, or urz, we suppress the s and retain the (') 
apostrophe. 

Remark. — The words feet,, geese, lice, mice, teeth, men, women, chil- 
dren, oxen, deer, sheep and swine, have 's in the possessive plural. 

Exercise IV. 

By Let the pupil write the possessive singular and the pos- 
sessive plural of the following nouns : 

Geography, boy, fly, hero, cottage, church, man, child, 
sheep, ox, scissors, conscience, bush, box, judge, Miss, kiss. 

Model for Writing Possessives. 

Given Words: geography, boy, fly hero, 
Poss. Sing.: geography's, boy's, fly's hero's, 
Poss. Plur. : geographies'. boys', flies' heroes'. 

Exercise V. 

%WLet the pupil write according to the above model, the pos- 
sessive singular and the possessive plural of nouns selected from 
the reading lesson. 



SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 51 

B.— APPOSITIVES. 

Exercise I. 

t^y Let the following sentences be written on the blackboard : 
i. Milton the poet was blind. 

2. Henry the Fourth was an excellent king. 

3. Cicero, the celebrated orator, was made consul. 

4. William the Conqueror defeated Harold, the Saxon king. 

5. We the people do ordain this constitution. 

Let such questions as these be asked — Which Milton ? 
Which Henry ? Which Cicero ? Which William ? We who ? 
The following inferences may be drawn : 

1. A noun is sometimes placed after a noun or pro- 

noun to distinguish the object denoted from 
some other of the same name. 

2. As the limiting noun is placed after the limited 

noun or pronoun, it is called an Appositive. 

3. The two words always denote the same object. 

Exercise II. 

KP^ Let the pupil place appositives after the nouns in the fol- 
lowing sentences : 

1. George reigned sixty years. 

2. Paul was a great missionary. 

3. Alexander was ambitious. 

4. Napoleon was captured at Sedan. 

5. Tennyson wrote Enoch Arden. 

6. The word is the name of a bird. 

6. Alfred founded Oxford University 

8. The ship was wrecked. 

Remark. — Appositives, if consisting of more than two words, are pre- 
ceded and followed by commas. 



52 SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

C— NOUNS DENOTING QUALITIES. 
Exercise I. 
\^TLet the following expressions be written on the blackboard : 
A ten-foot pole ; a five-cent cigar ; an iron ring ; a silver 
pitcher; a riddle string; a coal shovel; a forty-acre farm; a 
chairmaker ; a shoemaker; a watchmaker. 
Two inferences may be drawn : 

i. The limiting noun denotes a quality or trait of the 

object denoted by the limited noun. 
2. The limiting noun retains its theme form, that is, 
the noun is neither pluralized nor put into the 
possessive case. 

Exercise II. 



Let the pupil correct the form, of the limiting noun in the 
following expressions : 

A sixty-six feet chain ; a ten-cents cigar ; chairsmaker ; 
shoesmaker ; the Oldham's farm ; Illinois' coal. 

We have thus found that the application of nouns is deter- 
mined by the following classes of words : 
I. Adjectives, viz. : 

i. Qualifying Adjectives (First Circle, Chap. VII). 
2. Limiting Adjectives (Second Circle, Chap. IX). 
II. Nouns and pronouns used Adjectively, viz. : 
i. Possessives. 

2. Appositives. 

3. Nouns denoting some quality or trait. 

As approximate elements of speech, such words are called 
Adjective Elements. Hence — 

Definition. — A word joined to a noun to deter- 
mine its application, and telling which one ox whose, 
how many, or what kind, is called an Adjective 
Element. 



SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 53 

2. Use of Adjective Elements. 

Exercise I. 

Let the pupil write ten sentences each containing a noun 
limited by a word telling which one or whose. 

Model. — My book is torn. That tree is dead. 

Exercise II. 

|y Let the pupil write ten sentences each co?itaining a noun 
limited by a word telling how many objects the noun denotes. 

Model. — I caught sixteen trout this morning. 

Exercise III. 

\^F Let the pupil write ten sentences each containing a noun 
limited by a word telling the kind of object denoted by the limited 
noun. 

Model. — I gathered a bouquet of wild flowers. 
Exercise IV. 



Let the pupil write ten sentences each containing a noun 
limited by two adjective elements. 

Model. — Whose beautiful horse is that ? 

Exercise V. 

jy Let the pupil write ten sentences each containing a nou?i 
limited by three adjective elements. 

Model. — My father gave me these two fine pears. 



54 SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Remark. — All adjective elements, except appositives, are placed before 
the limited noun in the following order : 

i. Those telling which one or whose. 

2. Those telling how many. 

3. Those telling what kind. 

3. The Recognition of Adjective Elements. 

Exercise I. 

l^Let the pupil select all the adjective elements from the fol- 
lowing sentences: 

1. The poet Cowper wrote many beautiful poems. 

2. Yon branching elm must be a thousand years old. 

3. Very small scrubby trees grow near the mountain's top. 

4. My neighbor's vicious horse destroyed my rare plants. 

5. A very large ship was sunk by this rifled cannon. 

6. The poor but industrious young man amassed a large fortune. 

Exercise II. 

X^fLet the pupil select all the adjective elements from the fol- 
lowing extract : 

O Scotia ! my dear, my native soil ! 

For whom my warmest wish to heaven is sent ! 
Long may thy hardy sons of rustic toil 

Be blest with health, and peace, and sweet content ! 
And O, may heaven their simple lives prevent 

From luxury's contagion, weak and vile ! 
Then, howe'er crowns and coronets be rent, 

A virtuous populace may rise the while, 
And stand, a wall of fire, around their much-loved isle. 

Exercise III. 

X^TLet the pupil select the adjective elements from his reading 
lesson. 






SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 55 

CHAPTER XI. 

Adverbs ( Umstandswdrter). 

1. Words Limiting Verbs. 

Exercise I. 

Let the pupil tell which words express time in the follow- 
ing sentences : 

i. John came yesterday. 

2. Henry called soon afterwards. 

3. Mary started early this morning. 

4. He .called twice two days beforehand. 

5. She sometimes goes long before. 

Exercise II. 

X^tLet the pupil tell which words express place in the follow- 
ing sentences : 

1. George comes here daily. 

2. The balloon first went upward and then eastward. 

3. He will go elsewhere to-morrow. 

4. Come hither, hither, pretty fly. 

5. I know not whither he went or whence he came. 

Exercise III. 

R^p" Let the pupil tell which words express cause in the fol- 
lowing sentences : 

1. He told me why he did it. 

2. I asked him wherefore he left home to-day. 

3. John was sent to see his uncle. 

4. James went to get a book. 

5. He sent the cavalry to reconnoitre. 

6. Hence we departed. 



56 SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Since such words as these express the circumstances of 
time, place and cause, they are called Circumstantial Adverbs. 
Hence — 

Definition. — A word which limits a verb and ex- 
presses time, place or cause, is called a Circumstan- 
tial Adverb. 

Exercise IV. 

E5P Let the pupil select the words expressing manner in the 
following sentences : 

i. Slowly and sadly we laid him down. 

2. The army fought bravely and skillfully. 

3. The boatmen rowed briskly and sang merrily. 

4. The boat sped rapidly onward. 

5. The hall was brilliantly illuminated. 

Exercise V. 

ISP 3 Let the pupil tell which words express degree in the fol- 
lowing sentences : 

1. The cars moved very rapidly. 

2. He is almost crazed with grief. 

3. It was so cold that he was almost frozen. 

4. The clouds move quite slowly. 

5. He was too sick to go. 

Since words which express manner or degree, limit verbs, 
adjectives and other adverbs, they are called Intensive Ad- 
verbs. Hence — 

Definition. — A word joined to a verb 5 adjective 
or other adverb, to show the intensity of the quality- 
it expresses, is called an Intensive Adverb. 



SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 57 

Exercise VI. 

ty Let the pupil select the words expressing degree from the 
following sentences : 

i. A good name is better than riches. 

2. Who has most enemies and fewest friends ? 

3. The longer he lives, the wiser he becomes. 

4. I said an elder soldier, not a better. 

5. Frederick was a greater general than Napoleon. 

E^ 3 We find degree expressed by a change in the form of 
words. 

A.— COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. 
Exercise VII. 

^Z^/ the pupil carefully examine the following sentences : 

1 . A river is deep, a lake is deeper, but the ocean is the deep- 
est body of water. 

2. John is goody George is better ; but James is the best boy 
in school. 

3. Want is bad, debt is worse y but of all other things lazi- 
ness is the worst. 

4. I shall go soon, you will go sooner, but he will go soonest 
of all. 

5. This horse travels fast, that horse travels faster, but my 
horse travels the fastest. 

From a careful inspection of the above sentences we may 
make the following inferences : 

1. The quality in one object or act may be more or less 
intense than the same quality in other similar objects 
or acts. 

2. The form of the adjective or adverb may be changed 
to express this difference of intensity. 



58 SECOND CIRCLE IX ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. The three forms which an adjective or adverb may 
take, are called the positive degree, the comparative 
degree and the superlative degree. 

4. The process of thus changing the form of an adjective 
or adverb, is called comparison. 

5. The unchanged form of an adjective or adverb sus- 
ceptible of change, is called the positive degree. 

6. The form which shows that a quality in one object or 
act is more or less intense than a like quality in 
another object or act, is called the comparative de- 
gree. 

7. The form which shows that a quality in one object or 
act is more intense than a like quality in two or more 
other objects or acts, is called the superlative degree. 

B.— THE FORMATION OF THE COMPARATIVE AND 
SUPERLATIVE. 



1. The comparison of monosyllabic and of dissyllabic ad- 
jectives whose last syllable begins with a consonant, is formed 
by suffixing to the theme r or er for the comparative, and st 
Or est for the superlative. 

2. The following adjectives form their comparison irregu- 
larly : 



vsitive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


bad, 


worse, 


worst, 


far, 


farther, 


farthest, 


good, 


better, 


best, 


late, 


later or latter, 


latest or last, 


little, 


lesser or less, 


least, 


many, 


more, 


most, 


near, 


nearer, 


nearest or next, 


old, 


older or elder, 


oldest or eldest. 



SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



59 



3. The following adverbs are compared : 



Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


ill, 


worse, 


worst, 


little, 


less, 


least, 


much, 


more, 


most, 


well, 


better, 


best, 


fast, 


faster, 


fastest, 


long, 


longer, 


longest, 


often, 


oftener, 


oftenest, 


soon, 


sooner, 


soonest. 



C— POSITION OF THE ADVERB. 

Exercise VIII. 

ty Let the pupil carefully observe the relative position of the 
italicized words. 

1. He went very far away ; — up; — down. 

2. She came quite early yesterday morning. 

3. He arrived very soon afterwards. 

4. The physician frequently calls twice daily. 

Remark. — As limiting words may be placed before or after the limited 
word, they are called prepositives or appositives. A limiting word is a 
prepositive when it is placed before the limited word ; it is called an ap- 
positive, when it is placed after it. 

Exercise IX. 

%3f Let the pupil observe the position of the adverbs in the 
following sentences : 

1 . Here I stand ; or, I stand here. 

2. There he goes ; or, He goes there. 

3. The sails were shaking violently. 

4. He learns his tasks readily. 

5. The sails were already brought within folds. 

6. I really believe some people save their best thoughts. 

7. Our enemies usually teach us what we are. 

8. The gentlemen alternately nibbled and sipped. 

9. It is impossible to be at work continually. 
10. Their neighbors were not all invited. 



60 SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

From this we may make the following inferences : 

1. Circumstantial adverbs are never placed between the sub- 

ject and predicate. 

2. Adverbs denoting manner, especially if long words, are placed 

at the end of the sentence. 

3. Intensive Adverbs are placed before the word which they limit. 

2. Use of Adverbs. 

Exercise I. 

iy Let the pupil write ten sentences containing Circumstan- 
tial Adverbs. 

Exercise II. 

§3TLet the pupil write ten sentences containing Intensive Ad- 
verbs. 

Exercise III. 



Let the pupil write ten sentences containing adjectives or 
adverbs in the comparative degree. 

Exercise IV. 

X3T Let the pupil write ten sente?ices containing adjectives or 
adverbs in the superlative degree. 

Exercise V. 

gy Let the pupil write ten sentences each containing two ad- 
verbs. 

Exercise VI. 



Let the pupil write ten sentences each containing three 

adverbs. 



SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 61 

3. The Recognition of Adverbs. 

Exercise I. 

JSP 3 Let the pupil select the adverbs from the followiug 
extracts : 

1. Look once more, ere we leave this specular mound, 
Westward, much nearer by southwest ; behold 
Where on the ^Egean shore a city stands, 

Built nobly. 

2. Wheresoever I turn my ravished eyes, 

Gay gilded scenes and shining prospects rise ; 
Poetic fields encompass me around, 
And still I seem to tread on classic ground ; 
For here the muse so oft her harp has strung, 
That not a mountain rears its head unsung. 

3. How gloriously her gallant course she goes ! 
Her white wings flying — never from her foes — 
She walks the waters like a thing of life, 

And seems to dare the elements to strife. 
Who would not brave the battle-fire, the wreck, 
To move the monarch of her peopled deck ? 

Exercise II. 
'Let the pupil select the adverbs from the following extract ; 

To each his sufferings ; all are men 

Condemned alike to groan : 
The tender for another's pain, 

Th' unfeeling for his own. 
Yet ah ! why should they know their fate, 
Since sorrow never comes too late, 

And happiness too swiftly flies ? 
Thought would destroy their paradise — 
No more ! Where ignorance is bliss, 

'Tis folly to be wise. 

Exercise III. 
Let the pupil select the adverbial elements from his read- 
ing lesson. 



62 SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



CHAPTER XII. 

Adverbial Elements {Umstandsbestimmungen). 

1. Words Used as Adverbs. 

A.-NOUNS OF QUANTITY. 
Exercise I. 

$3F*Let the following sentences be written on the blackboard : 

i. He remained there two years. 

2. I arrived at home this morning. 

3. Wheat is a dollar a bushel. 

4. He weighed about two hundred pounds. 

5. He rides ten miles every day. 

6. She talks a great deal. 

7. She walks a queen. 

8. The street extends five miles. 

9. He comes Tuesdays and Thursdays. 

Let such questions as these be asked — 

How long did he remain ? When did I arrive ? What is 
the price of wheat ? How much did he weigh ? How far and 
how often did he ride ? How much did she talk ? How far 
does the street extend ? When does he generally come ? 

iy Nouns answering the questions how long, when, what 
price, how, how far, and how much, are used adverbially. 



SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 63 

B.— PARTICIPIAL NOUNS. 
Exercise II. 
' Let the following sentences be written on the blackboard: 
i. He came riding backwards. 

2. They returned rejoicing and praising God. 

3. Her clear voice came ringing on the air. 

4. I was forced to beg my bread. 

5. He went to see his friend. 

6. Read so as to be heard. 

7. I am ready to go. 

8. He is quite anxious to learn. 
Let such questions as these be asked — 

How did he come ? How did they return ? How did her 
voice come ? To what extent was I forced ? How am I to 
read ? In what respect am I ready ? Anxious ? 

We find that the participial nouns are used adverbially to 
express purpose, consequence, extent, manner, and respect 
wherein. Hence — 

Definition. — A word joined to a verb, adjective 
or other adverb, to determine its application, and 
expressing place, time, cause, manner or degree, is 
called an Adverbial Element. 

2. Use of Adverbial Elements. 

Exercise I. 
%3T Let the pupil write ten sentences containing nouns of 
quantity. 

Model. — The boy paid a dollar for the knife. 
Exercise II. 

|y Let the pupil write ten sentences containing participial 
nouns used adverbially. 

Model. — The wolves went howling after their prey. 



•64 SECOND CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. The Recognition of Adverbial Elements. 

Exercise I. 

^^Let the pupil select all the adverbial elements from the fol- 
lowing sentences and tell what words they limit : 

i. Henry usually wears his coat cloak fashion. 

2. My friend is to start day after to-morrow morning. 

3. My teacher comes Wednesdays and Saturdays. 

4. A spoonful a day is a dose for a child. 

5. There is a pleasure in the pathless woods. 

6. Not even a philosopher could endure it patiently. 

7. Never before did I see her look so pale. 

8. The comet had moved almost a billion miles. 

9. Not a drum was heard ; not a funeral note. 
10. Not many could have done better. 

Exercise II. 

l^Zet the pupil select the adverbial elements from the follow- 
ing extract : 

That day I oft remember, when from sleep 

I first awaked, and found myself reposed 

Under a shade on flowers, much wondering where 

And what I was, whence thither brought, and how. 

Not distant far from thence a murmuring sound 

Of waters issued from a cave, and spread 

Into a liquid plain, then stood unmoved, 

Pure as the expanse of heaven : I thither went 

With unexperienced thought, and laid me down 

On the green bank, to look into the clear smooth lake. 

Exercise III. 

X^Let the pupil select the adverbial elements from his read- 
ing lesson. 



THIRD CIRCLE 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



FOR THE 



SIXTH YEAE OE GEADE. 



T. E. VICKKOY 




SAINT LOUIS: 
PUBLISHED BY THE POLYTECHNIC PUBLISHING CO. 



FOR SALE BY 

C. WITTER, BOOKSELLER AND STATIONER, 

21 SOUTH FOURTH STREET, ST. LOUIS, MO. 

-"2& 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1877, by 

THE POLYTECHNIC PUBLISHING CO., 
OF ST. LOUIS, 

In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C. 



PREFACE 



The following pages contain what is designed to be a third 
year's work in English Grammar, and covers the subject 
matter for instruction in the Sixth Grade. 

This book contains the last results of the author's investi- 
gations on the topics herein treated, and hence, while these 
results differ in some respects from what is currently taught, 
this very difference may prove to be the solution of many 
difficulties which have hitherto perplexed students of English 
grammar. 

The topics to which special attention is called, are Copula- 
tive Verbs and Modes, Chapters II and VI. In Chapter II 
all that relates to the Copula and Attribute, in connection with 
the many forms under which the Attribute is found, is brought 
together and is presented in progressive exercises, so as to 
make clear their differences and connections. The explication 
of this subject has cost the author more time and care than 
any other. As the Copula expresses the self-activity of the 
thinker, the creative act by which higher truth is ever seized, 
it is necessary to make this point as explicit and plain as pos- 
sible. Let this Chapter be carefully studied in all its details. 

Chapter VI treats the difficult- and much mooted question 
of Mode. Here the author has departed from the usual 

(3) 



4 PREFACE. 

course, and has separated what is possible or potential from 
what is necessary, obligatory or co?npulsory. The potential is 
thus separated from the necessary, since it is fundamentally 
distinct and different, and hence our classification of the 
thought relations expressed by the verb is comprehensive and 
exhaustive. The Requisitive Mode thus comprehends what 
is usually expressed by the periphrastic conjugations, for which 
writers on grammar have not heretofore found a fitting place 
in their systems. 

In the Second Circle the modifications of the subject and 
elements of the first class were presented in copious drills. In 
this Circle the modifications of the verb and elements of the 
second class are similarly treated. 

The author's plan embraces a treatment of all sides of lan- 
guage culture. Hence, pupils are continually required to 
write sentences illustrating the principles learned, and after- 
wards they are to recognize the same in suitable sentences 
and extracts selected from the best specimens of English 
literature. 

If teachers carefully carry out the work here presented, 
pupils will acquire such a thorough knowledge of the lan- 
guage as to be prepared to study more advanced works. 

In submitting this book to the judgment of his fellow 
teachers, the author asks for it their generous consideration. 

St. Louis, April, 1877. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



General Definitions. 7. 
Classification of Words. 7 
Properties of Words. 8. 
CHAPTER I. Review. 9-15. 

1. What the subject may be 9 

2. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs io 

3. Direct and Indirect Objects II 

4. Masculine, Feminine and Neuter Genders II 

5. Modifiers of Substantives 12 

6. Modifiers of Verbs 13 

7. Determinatives and their Modifiers -. 14 

8. Singular and Plural Numbers 15 

CHAPTER II. Copulative Verbs. The Copula (Das Satz- 
band) and Attributes {Beilegewbrter). 16-24. 

1. Copula, Copulative Verbs, and Attributes 16-17 

2. Models and Exercises 17-21 

3. Copulative Verbs defined 22 

4. Exercises on use of Attributes 22-23 

5. Recognition of Copulas and Attributes 23-24 

CHAPTER III. Principal Parts of the Verb. (Haupt- 
iheile der TJuitigkeitsworter.} 25-30. 

1. Principal Parts named 25 

2. Principal Parts given 2 5~ 2 9 

3. Regular and Irregular Verbs defined 30 

CHAPTER IV. The Active and the Passive Voice. 
{Die Thatigeform und Leideform?) 61-34. 

1. Exercises and Models 31-33 

2. Inferences and Definitions 33~34 

3. Use and Recognition of Voice 34 

(5) 



O CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER V. Tense, Form, Person and Number, Auxil- 
iaries. {Die Zeit ) Person und Zahl, Hulfszeit- 
wbrter.) 35-43. 

1. Exercises on the Present, Past and Future Tenses 35 

2. Inferences 36 

3. Exercises on the Perfect Tenses 36-37 

4. Inferences and Classification of Tenses 37 

5. Definitions of the Tenses 38 

6. Forms of the Verb 38 

7. Synopsis of Tense, Form and Voice » 39 

8. Person and Number of the Verb 40 

9. Auxiliary Verbs 41 

10. Conjugation of the Verb to be 42 

11. Conjugation of the Verb to have 43 

CHAPTER VI. Participials and Modes. (Participien 
und Aussageweisen . ) 44-50. 

1. Exercises on Participials .'. 44 

2. The Modes 45 

3. Indicative and Potential Modes 46 

4. Subjunctive and Requisitive Modes 47 

5. Imperative Mode 48 

6. Use of Participials and Modes 48-49 

7. Recognition of the Properties of Verbs 50 

CHAPTER VII. Conjugation. (Abwandlung.) 51-60. 

1. Participials 51 

2. Indicative Mode. . c 51-53 

3. Potential Mode 53-55 

4. Subjunctive Mode - 55-57 

5. Requisitive Mode 57—59 

6. Imperative Mode 60 

7. Passive Voice 60 

CHAPTER VIII. Prepositions. (Verhdltnissworter.) 
61-63. 

1. Definition and Exercises 61-62 

2. Models and Exercises, 62-63 

CHAPTER IX. Conjunctions. (Bindeworter.) 64. 

1. Definition and Exercises 64 



GENERAL DEFINITIONS. 

English Grammar treats of the elements of the English language. 

These elements relate to words and sentences, and hence Grammar is 
usually divided into four parts, viz.: i. Orthography; 2. Etymology; 
3. Syntax ; and 4. Prosody. 

Orthography treats of sounds, letters and syllables, and teaches the con- 
ventional modes of representing words by letters. 

Etymology treats of the classification and properties of words, and also 
of the roots and affixes of which words are composed. 

Syntax treats of the construction and analysis of sentences, and of the 
interrelation and corresponding forms of elements and words. It includes 
analysis, parsing, and false syntax. 

Prosody treats of quantity, accent and versification, and of the laws of 
harmony in metrical compositions. 



CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. 



First— 



Principals :.. { 



Second- 



Accessories : . { 



I. SITBSTAN-J *• NA- 
TIVES. ] 

2. Pronouns. 

n. ATTRIBU- J 3. Verbs 
TIVES. 1 



Proper. 
Common. 

Participial. 



I 4. Interjections* . 



\i 

( a. 1 ran si 
< b. Intrari 
( c. Copul 



( a. Personal. 
I b. Adjective. 



itive. 
nsitive. 
tive. 
(See below.) 



r 

III. DETERMI- J 
NATIVES, i 



5. Adjectives 



! 6. Adverbs 



IV. 



CONNEC- 
TIVES 



:. 



Prepositions. . . 
Conjunctions.. 



( a. Qualifying. 
I b. Limiting. 
i a. Circumstantial. 
I b. Intensive. 

C a. Co-ordinate. 
) b. Subordinate. 



* Remark. — Words which express emotion are called Interjections. 
They are generally condensed exclamative sentences, as, Alas=0 me lasso 
=0/1 weary trie I Zounds=I swear by God's wounds! Good-bye=God 
be with you ! Farewell=may you fare (go) well! Adieu=I conwiit you 
to God! 

An Attributive is a word which expresses what is ascribed to some 
object. As Interjections express strong feeling as manifested by the 
speaker or writer, they are, in their very nature, Attributives. 

(7) 



PROPERTIES OF WORDS. 



I. Person 



II, Number 



m. Gender 



IV. Case 



V. Comparison. 



(i. N 

< 2. P 

(3- V 

i: 

i: 
i: 
i: 



ouns 
Pronouns 
Verbs 

Nouns 

Pronouns 

Verbs 




\i 



First Person. 
Second Person. 
Third Person. 



1. Singular. 

2. Plural. 

i. Masculine. 

2. Feminine. 

z. Neuter. 



Pronouns . 
Adjectives 

Adverbs 



\ i; 



Nominative. 

Possessive. 

Objective. 

Positive. 

Comparative. 

Superlative. 



VI. Voice. Trans. Verbs. 



VII. Tense. 



Vni. Form. 



IX. Mode. 



Verbs . 



1. Active. 

2. Passive. 

I. Present, Past, Future. 
II. Present Perf., Past Perf., Future Perf. 



Verbs 



Si: 



Verbs . <^ 3. 
4- 



Common. 

Progressive. 

Emphatic. 

Indicative. 
Potential. 
Subjunctive. 
Requisitive. 



X. Division of Verbs 



^5. Imperative. 

The Partici 
The Finite Verb. 



( 1. The Participials. 
\2. 



(8) 



CHAPTER I. 
REVIEW. 

A Sentence is a word or a combination of words in which 
something is said of an object. 

The component parts of a sentence are the Subject and the 
Predicate. 

We have found that the subject may be — 

I. A Proper noun, that is, a word or a group of words 
denoting a definite object. (Cf II Circle, chap. I.) 

II. A Common Noun, that is, a word denoting an indefi- 
nite object. {Cf. II Circle, chap. II.) 

III. A Participial Noun, that is, a word denoting an act 
or state. {Cf. II Circle, chap. III?) 

IV. A Personal Pronoun, that is, a word showing the 
relation of an object to the speaker. [Cf. II Circle, chap. IV.) 

KSTlVbuns and Pro?iouns are called Substantives, because 
they always denote substantial beings. 

Exercise I. 



*Let the pupil copy the following sentences, mark the sub- 
jects, and tell what kind of words they are : 

i. The avenues were lined with grenadiers. 

2. The streets were kept clean by cavalry. 

3. The peers were marshalled by heralds. 

4. The judges attended in their vestments of state. 

5. The gray old walls were hung with scarlet. 

6. The long galleries were crowded by anxious auditors. 
f^Zet the pupil also select all the nouns, pronouns, verbs, 

adjectives a?id adverbs from the above sentences. 



10 THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

We have also found that the predicate may be — 

i. An Intransitive Verb, that is, a word which expresses 
an energy that does not pass out of the object which 
manifests it. (Cf II Circle, chap. VII.) 

2. A Transitive Verb, that is, a word which expresses an 
energy that passes out of the object which manifests 
it to some other object. {Cf. as above.) 

Exercise II. 

^^Let the pupil copy the following extract, mark the subjects 
and predicates, and select all the transitive and intransitive 
verbs from it. 

The column came within ten miles of Fort du Quesne, 
marching along the Monongahela in regular array, drums 
beating and colors flying. In ascending a little slope, with a 
■deep ravine and thick underbrush on either side, they sud- 
denly encountered the Indians lying in ambush. The terrible 
war whoop resounded on every side. In their fright, the 
British regulars huddled together, and, by platoons, fired at 
random against the rocks and trees. The Virginia troops 
sprang into the forest and fought the savages in Indian style. 

Washington seemed everywhere present. An Indian chief 
with his braves singled him out especially. Four balls passed 
through his clothes. Two horses were shot from under him. 
Fifteen years after the battle of Braddock's Field, this old 
Indian chief came a "long way" to see the Virginia colonel 
at whom he had fruitlessly fired his rifle fifteen times. Wash- 
in gton never received a wound in battle. 



Let the pupil also select from this extract all the objective 
and adverbial elements. 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR 11 

We further found that a transitive verb may be limited by — 
i. The Direct Object, that is, the noun or pronoun denot- 
ing the object on which the act expressed by the verb 
immediately terminates. (Cf. II Circle, chap. VIII.) 
2. The Indirect Object, that is, the noun or pronoun 
denoting the object to or for which the act is done. 
(Cf. same as above.) 

Exercise III. 

l^TLet the pupil select the direct a?id the indirect objects 
from the following sentences : 

i. The merchant allows them no credit. 

2. My friend bought me a fine canary. 

3. The porter denied him admittance. 

4. Henry bought his brother a farm. 

5. The president offered John a commission. 

6. The teacher promised his pupils a holiday. 

7. His orchard yielded him a large crop. 

8. I paid him the debt a short time ago. 

9. The citizens provided their visitors an entertainment. 
10. The farmer will sell you his horses. 

A substantive may denote males, females, or objects without 
sex, that is, a substantive may be — 

1. Of the Masculine Gender, that is, it may denote a 
male, or an object thought to be a male. (Cf. II 
Circle, chap. V.) 

2. Of the Feminine Gender, that is, it may denote a 
female, or an object thought to be a female. (Cf, 
same as above.) 

3. Of the Neuter Gender, that is, it may denote an object 
having no sex, or to which no sex is attributed. {Cf 
same as above.) 



12 THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Exercise IV. 



"Let the pupil select the substantives from the following 
extract a?id tell their gender. 

Old ocean trembles, thunder cracks the skies, 
Air teems with shapes and tell-tale spectres rise ; 
Night's paltering hags their fearful orgies keep, 
And faithless guilt unseals the lips of sleep ; 
Time yields his trophies up, and death restores 
The moulder'd victims of his voiceless shores. 
The fireside legend and the faded page, 
The crime that cursed, the deed that blessed the age, 
All, all come forth — the good to charm and cheer, 
To scourge bold vice, and start the generous tear ; 
With pictured folly gazing fools to shame, 
And guide young glory's foot along the path of fame. 

A Substantive may be limited by — 

i. A Qualifying Adjective, that is, a word expressing a 
quality of the object denoted by the limited noun. 
(Cf. I Circle, chap. VII.) 

2. A Limiting Adjective, that is, a word telling which 
object or how many objects the limited noun denotes. 
(Cf II Circle, chap. IX.) 

3. A Possessive, that is, a substantive which attributes 
something to the object denoted by the limited noun. 
(Cf II Circle, chap. X.) 

4. An Appositive, that is, a noun placed after a noun or 
pronoun to distinguish the object denoted by the 
limited noun or pronoun, from some other object of 
the same name. (Cf. same as above.) 

5. A Noun used Adjectively, that is, a noun denoting 
some quality or trait of the object denoted by the 
limited noun. {Cf, same as above.) 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 13 

Exercise V. 

X^TLet the pupil select all the Adjective Elements and tell 
what words they limit : 

i. The mocking-bird flies around his mate with his tail 
widely expanded. 

2. His beautiful wings are gently raised; he bows to his 
love, opens his bill and pours forth his melody. 

3. They are not the soft sounds of the flute, but the 
sweeter notes of nature's own music. 

4. There is probably no bird in the world that posseses 
all the musical qualifications of this king of song, all 

derived from nature's self. 

5. Ye living flowers that skirt the eternal frost ! 
Ye wild birds sporting round the eagle's nest! 
Ye eagles, playmates of the mountain storm ! 
Ye lightnings, the dread arrows of the clouds ! 
Ye signs and wonders of the elements ! 
Utter forth God, and fill the hills with praise ! 

£y Verbs and Interjections are called Attributives, because 
they always impute some act or quality to the object to which 
they refer. 

A Verb may be limited by — 

1. A Circumstantial Adverb, that is, a word expressing 
place, time or cause. {Cf II Circle, chap. XI.') 

2. An Intensive Adverb, that is, a word expressing 
simply manner, quantity ox degree. {Cf. same as above.) 

3. A Noun of Quantity, that is, a noun denoting time, 
value, price, distance, measure, or manner. (.Cf. II Circle, 
chap. XII.) 

4. A Participial Noun, that is, a word expressing an act 
or state, and, at the same time, showing manner, pur- 
pose, consequence, extent, or respect wherein. ( Cf. same 
as above.) 



14 THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Exercise VI. 

^STLet the pupil select the Adverbial ele?nents jrom the fol 
lowing and tell which word they limit. 

1. The scythe lies glittering in the dewey wreath 
Of tedded grass, mingled with fading flowers 
That yester-morn bloomed waving in the breeze. 

2. Calmness seems throned on yon unmoving cloud. 

3. The blackbird's note comes mellower from the dale; 
And sweeter from the sky the gladsome lark 
Warbles his heaven-timed song. 

4. So doth the greater glory dim the less : 
A substitute shines brightly as a king, 
Until a king be by; and then his state 
Empties itself as doth an inland brook 
Into the main of waters. 

^t Adjectives and Adverbs are called Determinatives, be- 
cause they always determine the application of the word which 
they limit. 

A Determinative may be limited by — 

1. An Intensive Adverb, that is, an adverb which tells 
the intensity of a quality or act. ( Cf II Circle, chap. XI. ) 

2. Comparison, that is, a change in the form of an 
adjective or adverb to express its relative intensity. 
{Cf same as above.) 

Exercise VII. 
iy Let the pupil select all the intensive words and inten- 
sive forms from the following : 

1. The best men sometimes act rather foolishly. 

2. He came so very near falling that he could scarcely 
recover himself. 

3. The oftener I meet him the more I am pleased. 

4. The most successful men are not always the most 
cautious. 

5. That very boy was struck immediately above the eye. 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 15 

We found the forms of the noun, pronoun, verb, and the 
limiting adjectives this and that, to change to express — 

i. The Singular Number, that is, that the word relates 
to a single thing or to a collection or group regarded 
as a single thing. (Cf II Circle, chap. IV.) 
2. The Plural Number, that is, that the word refers to 
two or more objects or to a collection or group re- 
garded in its parts. (Cf. same as above.) 

Exercise VIII. 

^P 3 Tell the Number of the nowis, pronouns, verbs and ad- 
jectives in the following sentences : 

i. Water is as indispensable to life as air itself. 

2. All animals depend on this element for existence. 

3. This element of water is supplied by the sea. 

4. The sea is the birthplace of the clouds and rivers. 

5. The sea is a perpetual source of health. 

6. The heavens drop fatness from the sea. 

7. Its agency is omnipresent ; its vigilance is omniscient. 

8. The sea spins our thread and weaves our cloth. 

9. Through the sea, men level mountains and raise 
valleys. 

10. The sea keeps the mills and factories in motion. 
&T Let the pupils change the singular sentences into plural ones. 



CHAPTER II. 
Copulative Verbs. 

The Copula {Das Satzband) and Attributes 

{Beilegewbrter.) 
Exercise I. 
Cp 3 Write the following sentences on the blackboard ; 
i. Milton was a poet. 

2. Napoleon was a warrior. 

3. That man is a physician. 

4. Henry will be a great painter. 

5. William is a fine scholar. 
tyAsk such questions as these — 

Milton was what? (Let pupils answer.) Napoleon was 
what? That man is what? Henry will be what? William 
is what? W T e thus find that the words poet, warrior ; physi- 
cian, painter, and scholar tell us what Milton, Napoleon, man, 
Henry and William are. The words was, is, and will be, 
express the act by which the mind imputes these qualities to 
the subjects. 

Remark I. — In sentences in which transitive and intransitive verbs were 
used, the objects denoted by the subject were represented as putting forth 
certain energies, but the mental activity by which the assertion was made, 
was only implicit. The verb asserted some being, action, or state of the 
object denoted by the subject, but not explicetly. In the present chapter, the 
assertion is made explicit, and we shall therefore treat of copulative verbs. 

Remark 2. — A sentence is said to be a thought expressed in words. 
As the predicate in a definition must explicate the subject, it is pertinent to 
ask: What is a thought? Unless the term thought is clearer to our 
apprehension than the term sentence, we shall be no wiser by virtue of the 
definition. A thought is the result of thinking. But what is thinking ? 
Thinking is an act of the mind by which some act, state, quality, or other 
attribute is imputed to an object. This brings us to our former definition, 
that "a sentence is a word or words in which something is said of an 
object." 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 17 

Remark 3 — If we now analyze our definition of thinking, we find that 
it contains two parts: 1st. The thinking itself; 2d. What is thought, As 
predication now becomes explicit, this thinking is expressed through a 
distinct class of verbs called copulative verbs, and what is thought is ex- 
pressed through nouns, adjectives, pronouns and participles, called 
attributes. 

Remark 4. — The pupil should now write the analysis of the sentences 
in Ex. I., using the following symbols : * 

S=subject; P=predicate; a=adjective element; o=ob- 
jective element; v=adverbial element; P 2 =predicate, when 
the assertion is explicitly expressed; att=attribute ; cop= 
copula, -f shows the connection between copula and attri- 
bute. 

C S=Milton. 

j ( (cop)=was 

'• 1 P 2 =: ] + 

(^ ( (att)— poet I (a^=a 

S=Henry. 

C (cop)=will be 

p2 ) _|_ 

[ l (att)=painter { £0= 



a 
2:reat 



Exercise II. 

\^Let each pupil co?npose Jive sentences containing a subject, 
copula and attribute, and write the analysis of them according to 
the foregoing models. 

Remark. — The sentences should be copied on the board and carefully 
criticised. 



* Note. — This formula is used in some of the St. Louis Branch High 
Schools. 



18 THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Exercise III. 

%3TLet the following sentences be written on the blackboard: 
i. Strawberries are delicious. 

2. Snow is white. 

3. The sky is blue. 

4. Boys are mischievous. 

5. Kittens are frolicsome. 

ETAsk what quality is imputed to Strawberries? Snow/ 
The Sky ? Boys ? Kittens ? 

%gtLet each pupil write the analysis of the above sentences. 
Exercise IV. 

%W*Let the following sentences be written on the blackboard 
and be diagrammed : 

1. It is I. 

2. I am he. f S=It. 

3. I am I. ^ _ ( (cop)=is 

4 . Thou art he. \ Y ~ \ ) = ? 

5. Thou art she. <- ^ v ' 

Remark. -The pronouns /, he and she identify the subject, and thus 
make it explicit. They are attributes. 

Exercise V. 
"Let the following sentences be written on the blackboard: 

1. The hills grow old. 

2. The family have fallen sick. 

3. The man's face became crimson. 

4. The small boy became a large man. 

5. The distressed child continues sad. 

6. The old man remains cheerful. 

r - 1 (a)=The 
\ S=boy | [ a ' )±=sma ]i 

(cop,=became 




( (a)=a 
(att) - man { a):=large 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 19 

Remark. — Such verbs as grow and beco?ne express the transition of an 
object from one state to another, Avhile continues and remains show that 
the state of an object does not change. They are copulative verbs, and 
require attributes to complete their meaning. 

Exercise VI. 
X^Let the following sentences be written on the board : 
i. The fields look green. 

2. William seemed angry. 

3. The sun shines bright. 

4. The breezes blow soft. 

5. The thief turned pale. 

6. He appeared sad. 

Remark. — Look, seems and appeared assert, not that certain objects 
ARE green, angry or sad, but that they only seem so to the speaker or 
writer. Look, seem and appear are copulative verbs. 

Exercise VII. 
Let the following sentejices be written on the blackboard : 

1. The people elected him president. 

2. They named him Samson. 

3. The men thought him a maniac. 

4. They accounted him a scholar. 

5. He was chosen chairman. 

6. The society made the sage old man an honor- 
ary member. 

f S=people I a)=The 

J ( (cop)=eiected I (o)=him 

[ ( (att)=president 

f S=society | (a)=The 

C (a)=the 
j ( (cop}=made | (o)=man 1 (a)=sage 

P 2 = < + , , , ((a)=old 



( (cop,= 
j ( (att)=member j j^f 



honorary 



20 THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Remark. — Some verbs are transitive and copulative at the same time, 
inasmuch as they express an act which passes from the subject to the 
object, and also show that the object is changed through this act into some- 
thing else. Thus, through the suffrages of the people, a citizen is ele- 
vated into a high office, and becomes a state dignitary. 

Exercise VIII. 
%^*Let the following sentences be written on the blackboard : 
i. Pitt made a venal age unanimous. 

2. The farmer painted his buildings white. 

3. The lady colored her shawl red. 

4. The people thought him honest. 

5. Her friends considered her pretty. 
S=Pitt 



(cop)=made | (o)=age { g = * enaL 



j ( (att)=unanimous. 

Remark. — The verbs made, painted, colored, thought and considered 
express acts by which objects are transformed so as to possess new quali- 
ties and be something else. Adjectives express the new characteristic. 

Exercise IX. 
^^Let the following seiitences be written 011 the blackboard : 

1. The boy was writing a letter. 

2. The pictures were considered beautiful. 

3. The children were playing. 

4. The bees were humming a busy song. 

5. The letter should have been written. 
f S=boy I (a)=The. 

(cop)=was. 

+ 
(att)=writing | (o)=letter | (a)=a. 

letter | fa)=The. 
C (cop)=should have been. 

! F H + 

/ ( (att =wntten. 




THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 21 

Remark. — We shall treat the subject of participles more fully in subse- 
quent lessons, when we come to consider the voice, mode and forms of 
the verb. 

Exercise X. 

l^Let the following sentences be written on the blackboard : 
Transitive Verbs. Copulative Verbs. 

i. John tastes the honey. The honey tastes sweet. 

2. Mary smells the rose. The rose smells fragrant 

3. George looks at the fields. The fields look green. 

4. John feels the table. The table feels smooth. 

5. Henry rings the bell loudly. The bell rings loud. 

Remark i. — If we carefully examine the foregoing sentences, we find 
the distinctive differences between transitive and intransitive verbs on the 
one side, and copulative verbs on the other, viz : 

A Transitive or an Intransitive verb expresses an energy manifested by 
the object denoted by the subject, while a copulative verb expresses explic- 
itly an energy manifested by the writer or speaker. All verbs therefore 
show how objects exist or act, or how they are thought to exist or act. 

Remark 2. — The copulative verb asserts attributes as abiding, as 
becoming, or as merely seeming to be. 

Exercise XL 
ft^Zet the following sentences be ivritien 011 the blackboard: 
Permanent. Changing, or Seeming. 

1. John is good. John becomes good, or seems good. 

2. Henry is old. Henry grows old, or appears old. 

3. The door stands open. The door opens > or seems open. 

4. The fields are green. The fields become or look green. 

Remark. — When an object is presented, the mind seizes it immedi- 
ately, and in the energy it puts forth to know it, it brings it under some 
known category. This category is called an attribute. Hence an attri- 
bute is a word expressing the act, state, quality, or condition which is 
imputed to an object. 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

From the foregoing examples and remarks, we may infer 
the following — 

Definition. — A word which expresses the exist- 
ing, becoming, or seeming of an object, and re- 
quires a noun, pronoun, adjective, or participle to 
show what it is, how it exists, or what it becomes or 
seems, is called a Copulative verb. 

2. Use of Attributes, 

Exercise I. 

I5P Write te?i sente?ices telling what the following objects 
are : 

i . A pen is 

2. Desks are , 

3. A river is 

4. Hills are 

5. A letter is 

6. The earth is 

7. An Elementary sound is 

8. Arithmetic is 

9 Reading is 

1 o. An elephant is , 

Remark. — It is somewhat difficult to find suitable attributes telling 
what certain things are. But if the teacher will think, she may help the 
pupil. Thus, What is a pen? A pen is an instrument. What is ai 
instrument? An instrument is some means invented to effect a purpose. 
What is the difference between an instrument and a machine? A machine 
is an instrument which regulates moving power. Teaching is stimulation 
and direction, and hence teachers must suggest the line of thought, and 
thereby quicken the intellect into activity. In order to learn, children 
must THINK. 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 23 

Exercise II. 
$3^ Write fe?i sentences, using qualifying adjectives as attri- 
butes : 

Exercise III. 
Write te?i sentences, using pronouns as attributes. 

Exercise IV. 
Write ten sentences, using copulative verbs expressing the 
changing of a?i object from one state to another. 

Exercise V. 

iy Write ten se?itences, using copulative verbs expressing 
seeming. 

Exercise VI. 

d^ 3 Write ten sentences, using verbs which are both copula- 
tive a?id transitive at the same time. 

Exercise VII. 
By Write ten sentences, using the same verb, first, as transi- 
tive, and, secondly, as copulative. 

3. Recognition of Copulas and Attributes. 

Exercise I. 

iy Diagram the following sentences : 

i. Talent is something, but tact is everything. 

2. Talent is serious, sober, grave, and respectable. 

3. Tact is all that, and more too. 

4. It is not a sixth sense, but it is the life of all the five. 

5. It is the open eye, the quick ear, the judging taste, the 
keen smell, and the lively touch. 

6. Tact is the interpreter of all riddles, the surmounter of 
all difficulties, the remover of all obstacles. 



24 THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Exercise II. 
X^T Diagram the following sentences : 

i. Fear not: it is I. 2. I am he. 3. I am he that liveth. 
4. The inner revelation, I am I, like lightning flashed and 
stood before me; in that moment I had seen myself as I, for 
the first time and forever. 

5. The baby new to earth and sky, 
Has never thought that this is I. 

Exercise III. 

|y Diagram the following sentences : 

1. The boy suddenly became very sick. 

2. The sick boy grew worse. 

3. The heavens grew black above us. 

4. What seemed strange now appears clear. 

5. The fields look fresh and green. 

6. The night grew darker and darker. 

7. Black feels rough, and white feels smooth. 

8. The door stands open, and the work remains unfinished. 

9. He became a man while he seemed a boy. 
10. Oh heavenly muse! Such thy verse appears, 

So sweet, so charming to my ravished ears. 

Exercise IV. 
|y Diagram the following sentences : 

1. The people constitute Congress the law-making power. 

2. The President appoints certain persons consuls. 

3. The Romans made Cicero, the great orator, consul. 

4. The sufferers deputed him to represent them. 

5. The borough elected him a member of parliament. 

6. Wise were the kings who never chose a friend 
Till with full cups they had unmasked his soul 
And seen the bottom of his deepest thought. 



CHAPTER III. 



Principal Parts of the Verb {Die HaupttJieiie der 
TMtigJceitsworter). 

Exercise I. 

%3TLet the following be zuritten on the blackboard and the 
pupils be required to copy it : 

Past Participle. 
been, 



Present, 
am, 
arise, 
bear, 
beat, 
beget, 
begin, 
bid, 
bite, 
blow, 
break, 



Past. 

was, 

arose, 

bore, 

beat, 

begat, 

began, 

bade, 

bit, 

blew, 

broke, 



arisen, 

borne, 

beaten, 

begotten, 

begun, 

bidden, 

bitten, 

blown, 

broken, 



Pres. Active Part'le.. 
being, 
arising, 
bearing, 
beating, 
begetting, 
beginning, 
bidding, 
biting, 
blowing, 
breaking. 



|y The class should learn these forms so as to be able to> 
repeat them thus : Present, break; past, broke; past parti- 
ciple, broken; present- active participle, breaking. 

We thus find that verbs have four general forms which are 
called principal parts, and are named — 
i. The Present. 

2. The Past. 

3. The Past Participle. 

4. The Present-active Participle. 

Exercise. II. 



'Let the pupil write sentences, showing the correct use 
of these forms, as : The wind blows more furiously now than 
it blew yesterday. 

(=5) 



26 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Exercise III. 

'The Roman numerals may now be used to denote the 
parts, thus: I=the Present; II=the Past; III=the Past 
Participle; IV=the Present-active Participle. 
Copy and learn as before. 

IV. 

chiding. 

choosing. 

doing. 

drawing. 

driving. 

drinking . 

falling. 

flying. 

flowing. 

forsaking. 

freezing. 

Remark. — The compounds oido are misdo, overdo, and tindo; of fall 
is befall; and of for are forbear, forbid, forget and forsake. 



I. 


II. 


III. 


chide, 


chid, 


chidden, 


choose, 


chose, 


chosen, 


do, 


did, 


done, 


draw, 


drew, 


drawn, 


drive, 


drove, 


driven, 


drink, 


drank, 


drunk, 


fall, 


fell, 


fallen, 


fly, 


flew, 


flown, 


flow, 


flowed, 


flowed, 


forsake, 


forsook, 


forsaken 


freeze, 


froze, 


frozen, 



Let the class be required to give these forms as before, 
and also to write sentences showing their correct use. 

Exercise IV. 
Write on the blackboard and let the pupil copy : 



I. 


II. 


III. 


IV. 


get, 


got, 


gotten, 


getting. 


give, 


gave, 


given, 


giving. 


grow, 


grew, 


grown, 


growing. 


hide, 


hid, 


hidden, 


hiding. 


know, 


knew, 


known, 


knowing. 


lie, 


lay, 


lain, 


lying. 


lay, 


laid, 


laid, 


laying. 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



I. 


II. 


III. 


IV. 


ride, 


rode, 


ridden, 


riding. 


ring, 


rang, 


rung, 


ringing. 


rise, 


rose, 


risen, 


rising. 


see, 


saw, 


seen, 


seeing. 


shake, 


shook, 


shaken, 


shaking. 


set, 


set, 


set, 


setting. 


sit, 


sat, 


sat, 


sitting. 


slay, 


slew, 


slain, 


slaying. 


slide, 


slid, 


slidden, 


sliding. 


smite 


smote, 


smitten, 


smiting. 



Remark. — Give is compounded with for and mis, as fo?give, misgive; 
grow with out in outgrcnv; know and see \\\t\\Jore in foreknow and foresee. 
ISP" 'Repeat forms ', write sentences, and correct, as in previous 
exercises. 

Exercise V. 
Write on the board, and let pupils copy : 



I. 


II. 


III. 


IV. 


speak, 


spoke, 


spoken, 


speaking. 


steal, 


stole, 


stolen, 


stealing. 


stride, 


strode, 


stridden, 


striding. 


strive, 


strove, 


striven, 


striving. 


swear, 


swore, 


SAvorn, 


swearing. 


swim, 


swam, 


swum, 


swimming 


take, 


took, 


taken, 


taking. 


tear, 


tore, 


torn, 


tearing. 


thrive, 


throve, 


thriven, 


thriving. 


throw, 


threw, 


thrown, 


throwing. 


tread, 


trod, 


trodden, 


treading. 


wear, 


wore, 


worn, 


wearing. 


write, 


wrote, 


written, 


writing. 



Remark. — Take has the compounds betake, mistake, overtake, retake 
and undertake. 

'Repeat for ms, write sentences, and correct as before. 



28 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 





Exercise VI. 




EF 3 Write on 

I. 
become, 
come, 
overcome, 


the blackboard, and let pupils copy : 

II. III. IV. 
became, become, becoming, 
came, come, coming, 
overcame, overcome, overcoming. 


overrun, 
outrun, 


overran, 

outran, 


overrun, 
outrun, 


overrunning. 
outrunning. 



Caution. — Be careful not to say, he come or he run. 
Exercise VII. 
Write o?i the blackboard, and h t pupils copy .- 



Present. 


Past. 


Present. 


Past. 


abide, 


abode. 


behold, 


beheld. 


bind, 


bound. 


bleed, 


bled. 


breed, 


bred. 


cling, 


clung 


feed, 


fed. 


fight, 


fought. 


find, 


found. 


fling, 


flung. 


grind, 


ground. 


hold, 


held. 


lead, 


led. 


meet, 


met. 


read, 


read. 


shoot, 


shot. 


shrink, 


shrunk. 


sing, 


sung. 


sink, 


sunk. 


sling, 


slung. 


slink, 


slunk. 


speed, 


sped. 


spin, 


spun. 


spring, 


sprung. 


stand, 


stood. 


stick, 


stuck. 


sting, 


stung. 


stink, 


stunk. 


strike, 


struck. 


string, 


strung. 


swing, 


swung. 


win, 


won. 


wind, 


wound. 


wring, 


wrung. 



Remark. — The Past Participle in these verbs is like the Past. The 
Present-active Participle is formed by annexing ing to the Present, omitting 
silent e in abide and strike, and doubling n in spin and win. 

'Repeat forms \ write sejitences, a?id correct as befote. 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



29 



Exercise VIII. 
The following verbs have double forms for the Past and 
the Past Participle ; 



I. 


II. 




III. 


awake, 


awoke, awaked 


j 


awoke, awaked. 


bereave, 


bereft, bereavec 


I, 


bereft, bereaved. 


cleave, 


clove, cleft, 




cloven, cleft. 


crow, 


crew, crowed, 




crowed. 


dig, 


dug, digged, 




dug, digged. 


eat, 


ate, eat, 




eaten, eat. 


hang, 


hung, hanged, 




hung, hanged. 


kneel, 


knelt, kneeled, 




knelt, kneeled. 


shine, 


shone, shined, 




shone, shined. 


stave, 


stove, staved, 




stove, staved, 


work, 


wrought, worked, 


wrought, worked. 


IdP 3 'Repeat forms and write sentences, showing the correct use 


of these double for?tis . 








Exercise 


IX. 




I3P The followi7ig verbs annex 


d or t in the Past and Past 


Participle, 


and have a different vowel sound 


in these for??is : 


I. 


II. 


I. 


II. 


beseech, 


besought. 


bring, 


brought. 


buy, 


bought. 


catch, 


caught. 


creep, 


crept. 


deal, 


dealt. 


feel, 


. felt. 


flee, 


fled. 


hear, 


heard. 


keep, 


kept. 


leave, 


left. 


loose, 


lost. 


seek, 


sought. 


sell, 


sold. 


shoe, 


, shod. 


sleep, 


slept. 


teach, 


taught. 


tell, 


told. 


think, 


thought. 


weep, 


wept. 


may, 


might. 


can, 


could. 


shall, 


should. 


will, 


would. 



30 THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Remark I. — May, can, shall and will have no participles. 

Remark 2. — The Past Participle is like the Past in the other verbs. 
The Present-active Participle is formed by annexing ing to the Present, 
dropping silent e in leave and loose, but retaining it in shoe sm&Jlee. 

%^t Repeat forms and write sentences. 

Exercise X. 

Verbs ending in the sound of d or t form the Past and Past 
Participle by annexing the syllable ed. The ed, however, is 
omitted in burst, cast, cost, cut, hit, hurt, let, put, rid, set, shed, 
shut, spread and thread. Verbs ending in nd have t in p. and 
p.p., as send, sent/ lend, lent; rend, rent; spend, spent. Lay, 
pay and say have laid, paid and said in the p. and pp: Nearly 
all other verbs form the p. and pp. by annexing d or ed to 
the Present. 

Verbs are usually classed in regard to the formation of their 
principal parts into — 

I. Regular Verbs, and 
II. Irregular Verbs. 

Regular Verbs are such verbs as form their Past and Past 
Participle by annexing d or ed to the Present. All other 
verbs are called Irregular Verbs. 

Exercise XL 

^TLet the pupil write the Pri?icipal Parts of the following 
verbs : 

Guess, chant, reach, march, walk, talk, drink, watch, add, 
rent, crochet, croquet, risk, and go. 

Exercise XII. 

gy Let the pupil write the Principal Parts of the verbs con- 
tained in the reading lesson. 

lyContinue this exercise until the class can give the prin- 
cipal parts of any verb in the reading lesson. 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 31 

CHAPTER IV. 

The Active and the Passive Voice. 

{Die TMtigeform und Leideform). 
Exercise I. 
*dP Let the following sentences be written on the blackboard: 

Active Voice. Passive Voice, 

i. A man struck a boy. A boy was struck. 

2. Some boys threw stones. Stones were thrown. 

3. The oarsmen row the boat. The boat is rowed. 

4. Qxen draw wagons. Wagons are drawn. 

5. The hunter shot a deer. A deer was shot. 
iy Ask such questions as these : 

What did a man do ? What was done to a boy ? 

Remark. — In the above sentences, struck, threw, raiv, draw and shot 
express acts which affect the objects denoted by boy, stones, boat, wagons 
and deer. In the passive voice the words denoting the objects affected are 
used as subjects, while the objects by whom these acts are performed are 
not named. The subject in the passive voice denotes the recipient of 
the act expressed by the verb. 

Exercise II. 
l^T Let the following sentences be written o?i the blackboard: 
Active Voice. Passive Voice. 

1. John wrote a letter. A letter was written. 

2. Birds build nests. Nests are built. 

3. The man made a machine. A machine was made. 

4. 'He will paint a picture. A picture will be painted. 

5. They sing songs. Songs are sung. 

Remark. — The vetbs wrote, build, made, paint aud sing express acts 
which produce the objects denoted by letter, nests, machine, picture and 
songs. In the passive voice these words are used as subjects, and denote 
the effect of the acts expressed by these verbs. 



32 THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Exercise III. 
£y 'Let the following sentences be written on the blackboard: 

Active Voice. Passive Voice. 

i. He sees the bird. The bird is seen. 

2. You hear the singing. The singing is heard. 

3. They touch the desk. The desk is touched. 

4. She tastes the fruit, The fruit is tasted. 

5. I smell this flower. This flower is smelled. 

Remark. — The verbs see, hear, touch, taste aud smell express acts by 
which the objects denoted by bird, singing, desk, fruit and f flatter are cog- 
nized. In the passive voice, these words become the subjects and denote 
the objects cognized. 

Exercise IV. 

X^TLet the following sentences be written on the blackboard 
and diagrammed : 

1. They made him chairman. 
He was made chairman. 

2. She appointed him her executor. 
He was appointed her executor. 

3. He named his daughter Florence. 
His daughter was named Florence. 

4. I consider her a good scholar. 
She is considered a good scholar. 

5. We elected him president. 
He was elected president. 

f S=daughter | (a)=His 
f was 



Act. 


V. 


Pass. 


V. 


Act. 


V. 


Pass. 


V. 


Act. 


V. 


Pass. 


V. 


Act. 


V. 


Pass. 


V. 


Act. 


V. 


Pass. 


V. 



1 I + 

^ P2— <J named 

I + 
£ I Florence. 



Pass. 


V. 


Act. 


v.. 


Pass. 


V. 


Act, 


V. 


Pass. 


V. 


Act 


V. 


Pass. 


V. 


Act. 


V. 


Pass. 


V. 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 33 

Exercise V. 
&FZet the following sentences be written on the blackboard 
and diagrammed ; 

Act. V. i. They considered him learned. 

He was considered learned. 

You think him [to be] rich. 

He is thought [to be] rich. 

They did not regard beauty necessary. 

Beauty was not regarded necessary. 

My divinity makes my misfortune eternal. 

My misfortune is made eternal. 

They painted the door blue. 

The door was painted blue. 

f S=Beauty 

C was 
+ 
P 2 = \ regarded | (v)=not 
+ 
i necessary. 

From the foregoing exercises and remarks we may make 
the following 

INFERENCES : 

i. Transitive verbs express acts which affect objects, produce 
objects, or cognize objects. 

2. The word denoting the doer of the act may be suppressed; 

the words denoting the objects affected, produced, or 
cognized, may become the subjects, and the form of the 
verb may be changed. 

3. The following definitions may be inferred : 

Definition I. — Yoice is a property of transitive 
verbs which shows the relation of the act expressed 
by the verb to the object denoted by the subject. 
3 



34 THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Definition II.— A transitive verb is in the Active 
Voice when its subject denotes the doer of the act 
expressed by the verb. 

Definition III.— A transitive verb is in the Pas- 
sive Voice, when its subject denotes the object 
affected, produced, or cognized through the act 
expressed by the verb. 

2. Use of Voice. 

Wt Let the pupil change the verbs in the following sentences 
from the active to the passive voice : 

Exercise I. 
i. Well-bred people do not offend the feelings of others. 

2. Self-conceited speech pains our hearers. 

3. Such conduct makes children disagreeable. 

4. A polite person enters a room quietly. 

5. Noisy talk mars every one's comfort. 

6. Civility and politeness make us respected. 

Exercise II. 

OP Let the pupil chafige the verbs in the following sentences 
ft am the passive to the active voice ; 

1. A rope was soon brought. 

2. The rope was tied to a brave youth. 

3. At last the brink of the precipice was reached. 

4. The eagle's ne?t was seen far below. 

5. The babe was fastened on his back. 

6. He was drawn up over the edge of a cliff. 

3. Recognition of Voice. 

iy Let the pupil select all the verbs from his reading les- 
sons, and tell whether they have voice ; if so, whether they 
are in the active or the passive voice. 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 35 

CHAPTER V. 

Tense, Form, Person and Number, Auxiliaries. 

{Die Zeit, Person und Zalil, Hulfszeitworter ) 
I. Tense {Die Zeit). 
Exercise I. 
%^TLet the followi?ig sentences be written 071 the blackboard: 
The boy studies his lessons. 
The boy studied his lessons. 
The boy will study his lessons. 
Studies shows what the boy usually does. 
Studied shows what the boy usually did. 
Will study shows what the boy will usually do. 

Remark. — The act of studying is represented by these forms as indefi- 
nite in present, past, or future time. 

Exercise II. 
XWLet the following sente?ices be written on the blackboard : 
The boy is studying his lessons now. 
The boy was studying his lessons yesterday. 
The boy will be studying his lessons to morrow* 
Is studying shows what the boy is doing now. 
Was studying shows what the boy was doing at some 
definitely stated past titne. 

Will be studying shows what the boy will be doing at 
some definitely stated future time. 

Remark. — The act of studying is represented by these forms as going 
02. in present, past, or future time. 

Exercise III. 

Id^Let the pupil write sente?ices containing each of the follow- 
ing verbs in the Present, the Past, and the Future Tenses. 

Write, read, build, see, know, ride, drive, sing, tell, act, 
climb, and go. 



36 THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Inferences : 

The form studies shows what usually takes place, while 
is studying, shows what is now transpiring. As both forms 
relate to present time, they are said to be in the Present Tense. 

The form studying shows what usually took place in past 
time, while was studying shows what was transpiring at some 
definitely stated past time. As both forms relate to past time, 
they are said to be in the Past Tense. 

The form will study shows what generally will occur here- 
after, while will be studying shows what will be transpiring at 
some definitely stated future time. As both forms relate to 
future time, they are said to be in the Future Tense. 
Exercise IV. 

^STLet the following sentences be writte?i on the blackboard ': 

The boy has studied his lessons just now. 

The boy had studied his lessons before you came. 

The boy will have studied his lessons before you leave. 

Has studied shows that the act of studying is completed in 
present time. 

Had studied shows that the act of studying was completed 
prior to some definitely stated past time. 

Will have studied shows that the act of studying will be 
completed prior to some definitely stated future time. 
Exercise V. 

%3tLet the following sentences be written on the blackboard : 

The boy has been studying his lesson. 

The boy had been studying his lesson. 

The boy will have been studying his lesson. 

Has been studying shows an act as continuing up to present 
time. 

Had been studying shows an act as continuing up to some 
definitely stated past time. 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 37 

Will have been studying shows an act as continuing up to 
some definitely stated future time. 

Inferences : 

As the forms has studied and has been studying show acts 
as completed in present time, they are said to be in the 
Present Perfect Tense. 

As the forms had studied and had been studying show acts 
as completed prior to some definitely stated past time, they 
are said to be in the Past Perfect Tense. 

As the forms will have studied and will have been studying 
show acts as completed prior to some definitely stated future 
time, they are said to be in the Future Perfect Tense. 

Exercise VI. 

X^*Let the pupil write sentences containing the following 
verbs in the Present Perfect, the Past Perfect, and the Future 
Perfect Tenses 

Walk, talk, fly, stand, lie, sit, sleep, eat, throw, grow, thrive, 
sing, and dance.. 

Inferences : 

i. We have now found out that the verb relates to time, 
and that this property of verbs is called Tense. Hence — 

Definition. — Tense is a property of verbs which 
shows the relation of an act or assertion to Time. 

2. We have also found that there are two kinds of tenses, viz : 

I. Those tenses which express present, past, or future 
time without reference to any other time, called 
Simple Tenses; and 

II. Those tenses which express present, past, or future 
time as prior to some other present, past, or future 
time, called Relative Tenses. 



ok THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The Simple Tenses are : i. The Present Tense {Gegenwart); 
2. The Past Tense {Mitvergangenheit), and 3. The Future 
Tense (Zukunft). 

The Relative Tenses are: 4. The Present Perfect Tense 
{Vergangenheit) ; 5. The Past Perfect Tense (Vorvergangen- 
heit), and 6. The Future Perfect Tense (Vorzukunft). 

The Present Tense shows an act or state as usually taking 
place, or as continuing to take place in present time. 

The Present Perfect Tense shows an act or state as com- 
pleted in present time, or as continuing up to present time. 

The Past Tense shows that an act or state usually took 
place, or continued to take place in past time. 

The Past Perfect Tense shows that an act or state took 
place, or continued to take place prior to some specified 
past time. 

The Future Tense shows that an act or state will usually 
take place, or will continue to take place in future time. 

The Future Perfect Tense shows that an act or state will 
have taken place, or will have continued to take place prior 
to some specified future time. 

II. Forms of the Verb. 

We have found that each tense is double : 

1. It may express what usually takes place. 

2. It may express what continues to take place. 

The form which shows what usually takes place is called 
the Common Form. 

The form which expresses an act or state as continuing to 
take place, is called the Progressive Form. 

The verb has still another form, in which do or did is com- 
bined with the Present. This form is called the Emphatic 
Form, and is used only in the active voice of the present and 
the past tenses. 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



39 



Exercise VII. 
Let the following sentences be written on the blackboard '. 
1. Present Tense. 



Common. 



{ 

Progressive, j " 
Emphatic. 



Common. 



C A 

Progressive. \ p' 
Emphatic. A. 



Common. 



A. 

, P. 

!A 
p' 

4. 

!A 
p' 

Progressive. A. 



Common. j 
Progressive. 

Common. j 
Progressive. 



A. John builds a house. 

P. A house is built. 

A. John is building a house. 

P. A house is being built. 

A. John does build a house. 

2. Past Tense. 

John built a house. 
A house was built. 
John was building a house. 
A house was being built. 
John did build a house. 

3. Future Tense. 

John will build a house. 
A house will be built. 
John will be building a house. 
A house will be being built. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

John has built a house. 
A house has been built. 
John has been building a house. 

5. Past Perfect Tense. 

A. John had built a house. 

P. A house had been built. 

A. John had been building a house. 

6. Fntnre Perfect Tense. 

A. John will have built a house. 
P. A house will have been built. 
A. John will have been building a house. 



40 THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Thus we find distinct forms for both the common and the 
progressive forms in the simple tenses of both voices. Each 
of the simple tenses of transitive verbs has four forms, while 
the present and the past each has an additional form. 

There is no progressive form in the passive voice of the 
relative tenses. 

m. Person and Number {Person und Zahl). 
Exercise VIII. 
X^TLet the following sentences be written o?i the blackboard: 

i. I write a letter. We write letters. 

2. Thou writest a letter. You write letters. 

3. He writes a letter. They write letters. 

We thus find that the verb is limited by the person and 
number of the subject, and, in the second and the third per- 
sons singular, the form of the verb is changed to show its 
agreement with the subject. As personal pronouns show the 
limitation of the verb, and have three persons and two num- 
bers (Cf II Circle, chap. VI), so verbs have likewise three per- 
sons and two numbers. Nouns are always in the third person, 
except when they denote the person addressed^ in which case 
such noun is in the second person, and is called a compella- 
tive, and may be the subject of the verb, if there is no pro- 
noun expressed or demanded by the sense. 



Remark. — The form with thou is used, in poetry and prayer, and other 
elevated forms of speech, and usually annexes 8t, est or t to the Present or 
Past. In the third person singular of the present tense, th. or eth. is used 
for the same purpose. The form with s is used in the common form, third 
person, singular, of the Present Tense. (Cf. II Circle, page 21.) 



/ 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 41 

IV. Auxiliary Verbs (Hulfszeitwdrter). 
Exercise IX. 
"Let the following sentences be written on the blackboard : 
i. He is writing a letter. 

2. He does write a letter. 

3. He has written a letter. 

4. He will write a letter. 

5. He shall write a letter 

6. He may write a letter. 

7. He can write a letter. 

8. He must write a letter. 

9. Let him write a letter. 

Remark. — The verbs be, do, have, will, shall, must and let are called 
Auxiliary Verbs, because they are combined with the principal parts or 
other verbs to express definite relations of thought. Hence — 

Definition. — An Auxiliary Verb is a verb 

which is combined with the principal parts of other 

verbs to express certain definite relations of thought. 

Exercise X. 

K3P 'Let the pupil learn the following forms of the auxiliary 

verb to do : 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1st Ferson. I do. We do. 

2d Person. Thou dost. You do. 

3d Person , He does. They do. 

Past Tense 

1st Person. I did. We did. 

2d Person. Thou didst. You did. 

$d Person. He did. They did. 

Remark. — The verb to do is frequently used in interrogative sentences 
to determine the interrogative form. Thus, in the sentence, Does he sing? 
does expresses INQUIRY, not emphasis. This is also the case with do in the 
common salutation, ITcnu do you do? 



42 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Exercise XI. 

iy 'Let the pupil learn the following forms of the auxiliary 
^verb to be : 

Present Tense. 
Singular, 
ist Person. I am. 
2d Person. Thou art. 
3d Person. He is. 

Past Tense. 
ist Person. I was. 
2d Person. Thou wast. 
3d Person. He was. 

Future Tense. 

ist Person. I shall be. 

2d Person. Thou wilt be. 

3d Person. He will be. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

ist Person. I have been. We have been. 

2d Person. Thou hast been. You have been. 

3d Person. He has been. They have been. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

ist Person. I had been. We had been. 

2d Person. Thou hadst been. You had been. 

$d Person. He has been. They had been. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

ist Person. I shall have been. We shall have been. 

2d Person. Thou wilt have been. You will have been. 

$d Person. He will have been. They will have been. 

Remark. — The pupil should be tested on his knowledge of these forms 
by being required to write certain forms miscellaneously selected. Thus : 
Write the second person singular of the Present Perfect Tense of the verb 
to be. Write the first person plural of the Future Tense of the verb to he. 



Plural. 
We are. 
You are. 
They are. 

We were. 
You were 
They were. 

We shall be. 
You will be. 
They will be. 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



43 



Exercise XII. 

'Let the pupil learn the following forms of the auxiliary 
verb to have : 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural, 

ist Person. I have. We have. 

2d Person. Thou hast. You have. 

$d Person. He has. They have. 

Past Tense. 

ist Person. I had. We had. 

2d Person. Thou hadst. You had. 

$d Person. He had. They had. 

Future Tense. 
ist Person. I shall have. We shall have. 

2d Person. Thou wilt have. You will have. 

$d Person. He will have. They will have. 

Present Perfect Tense. 
ist Person. I have had. We have had. 

2d Person. Thou hast had. You have had. 

$d Person. He has had. They have had. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

ist Person. I had had. We had had. 

2d Person. Thou hadst had. You had had. 

3d Person. He had had. They had had. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

ist Persofi. I shall have had. We shall have had. 

2d Person. Thou wilt have had, You will have had. 
$d Person. He will have had. They will have had. 

Remark. — The pupil should be drilled in writing certain forms as in 
the foregoing exercises. 



44 THIRD CIKCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

CHAPTER VI. 

Farticipials and Modes (Participien und 
Aussageweiseri). 

Exercise I. 
X^Let the following be written on the blackboard : 
Present-active ( to write. Common fonn. 



ve ( 



Infinitive : } to be writing. Progressive form. 

Perfect-active i to have written. Common form. 

Infinitive: \ to have been writing. Progressive jorm. 
Present-passive 

Infinitive: to be written. Common form. 
Perfect passive 

Infinitive : to have been written. Common form. 

$3TZet the pupils write the Infinitives of go, get, give, grow, 
and know. 

Exercise II. 

\£T'Let the following be written on the blackboard : 

Present-active Participle : knowing. 

Perfect-active Participle : having known. 

Present : passive Participle : {being \ known. 

Perfect-passive Participle : having been known. 

&TLet the pupils write all the Participles of see, shake, slay, 
slide, and smite. 

Remark. — Infinitives and Participles are called Participials, because 
they partake of the nature of the verb, and at the same time have the form 
and construction of nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. On this account they 
are clearly distinguished from the Finite Verb, which changes its form to 
express a correspondence to the number and person of its subject. The 
Present Passive Participle and the Past Participle are almost identical. The 
verbs bear and freight, however, have distinct forms for each of these Par- 
ticiples. Thus : borne, bom; freighted, fraught. Borne and freighted 
are active, while born and fraught are passive. 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 45 

Exercise III. 
\5^*Let the following be written on the blackboard : 
i. John sees a star. 

2. John can see a star. 

3. If John sees a star, he will tell you. 

4. John must see the star. 

5. Let John see the star. 

Sees expresses the seeing as real or actual. 

Can see expresses the seeing as a capability. 

If — sees expresses the seeing as conditioning something else. 

Must see expresses the seeing as something demanded. 

Let — see expresses the seeing as something commanded. 

We thus find that an attribute may be thought in five differ- 
ent ways. These ways are called Modes. And since the 
Copulative verb expresses the activity of thinking, mode is a 
property of the copula. Hence we infer the following — 

Definition. — Mode is a property of the copula, 
or verb, which shows how an attribute is thought. 

If an attribute is thought as real or actual, the verb is said 
to be in the Indicative Mode (die Wirklichkeiisfomi). 

If an attribute is thought as potentiality, capability, or 
probability, the verb is said to be in the Potential Mode (die 
Moglichkeitsform ) . 

If an attribute is thought as conditioning something else, 
the verb is said to be in the Subjunctive Mode (die Bedingungs- 
form). 

If an attribute is thought as something obligatory, necessary, 
essential, inevitable, or requisite, the verb may be said to be in 
the Requisitive Mode (die Nothwendigkeitsfomi). 

If an attribute is thought as something depending on the 
will' of the speaker or writer, the verb is said to be in the Im- 
perative Mode {die Befchlsfonri). 



46 THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Exercise IV. 
l^Let the following be written on the blackboard : 

I. Indicative Mode. 
Present Tense : We go. 

Past Tense : We went. 

Future Tense: We shall go. 

Presefit Perfect Tense : We have gone. 
Past Perfect Tense ; We had gone. 
Future Perfect Tense : We shall have gone. 

II. Potential Mode. 

Present • i lm We m ^ g0 ' or we can %°' 

\ 2. We might go, or we could go. 

Past ■ f x - We may have gone, or we can have gone. 

) 2. We might have gone, or we could have gone. 

Remark i. — The Indicative Mode has six tenses, while the Potential 
Mode has but two tenses, the Present and the Past. As the Potential 
Mode expresses what is potential and not real, it can not have any perfect 
tenses. If anything potential is realized, it must be expressed by the In- 
dicative Mode. 

Remark 2. — May, might, can, could, are used to form the Potential 
Mode. Can expresses a capability which the object denoted by the subject 
has the power to manifest, or which this object is susceptible of becoming. 
May expresses permission, desire, or contingency, determined by the speaker 
or writer, but which the object denoted by the subject has the power to 
realize. Both may and can show that the act, state or quality expressed 
by the predicate is potential in the object denoted by the subject, but may 
shows that the realization of potentiality is dependent on the writer or 
speaker. 

Remark 3. — The Potential Mode has two forms in each tense. The first 
form expresses the potentiality with reference to present or past time inde- 
pendently, while the second form always implies a determining condition. 
Thus, He could go (if he would) ; he might go (if he were permitted). These 
forms, although they contain the past form of the Auxiliary, nevertheless 
clearly relate to present time. So, too, the second forms in the Past tense 
mean, He might have gone (if he had wanted to go); and, He could have 
gone (if he had been permitted to do so). 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 47 

Exercise V. 
*Let the following be written on the blackboard ; 
III. Subjunctive Mode. 

Present: If a letter be written 

Past : If a letter were written 

Future : If a letter should be written 

Present Perfect ; If a letter has been written 

Past Perfect : If a letter had been written 

Future Perfect: If a letter should have been written 

Remark. — Whenever the conditioning clause expresses an attribute as 
doubtful or contingent, the verb takes this conditional form. In condi- 
tional clauses shall is used in the third person, and should in all the per- 
sons to express a mere contingency; as, If zV should snow to-morrow, I 
Could not come. If he shall go, I %uill accompany him. 

Exercise VI. 
IV. Requisitive Mode. 

^f*Let the following be written on the blackboard : 

C I must go. Necessity. 

Present : 1 I ought to go, or I should go. Obligation. 

( I have to go. Compulsion. 

f I was to go, or I must have gone. Necessity. 
p . J I ought to have gone, or I should 

j have gone. Obligation. 

[^ I had to go. Compulsion. 

jj, (I am to go. Necessity. 

\ I shall have to go. Compulsion. 

Remark. — We thus find certain distinct forms which express necessity, 
obligation or compulsion in present, past or future time. Since the object 
denoted by the subject is determined through some outside power to the 
putting forth of certain energies, an appropriate name for this mode is 
Requisitive. We thus separate must horn the potential mode, and include 
certain other periphrastic forms which have not been heretofore recognized. 
Thus, the Requisitive Mode expresses what is demanded of us by our 
relations to the Universe. 



48 THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Exercise VII. 
V. Imperative Mode. 

l^'Zet the following be written on the blackboard : 
Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

isl Person. Let me go. Let us go. 

2d Person. Go thou. Go ye. 

$d Person. Let him go. Let them go. 

Future Tense. 
1st Person. I will go. We will go. 

id Person f Thou ma y est g°- You ma y S°- 

( Thou shalt go. You shall go. 

xd Person I He may ga ' The >" ma ^ S°" 

' ( He shall go. They shall go. 

Remark i. — We thus find that the Imperative Mode has forms for two 
numbers and three persons. As this mode gives utterance to what is 
willed by the speaker or writer, and expresses command, purpose, entreaty, 
prayer, exhortation, permission or imprecation, it may have two tenses — 
the Present and the Future. 

Remark 2. — Will is used in the first person to express a promise or a 
THREAT, and shall in the second and third persons to express a COMMAND, 
a promise, or a threat. In the Imperative Mode, may expresses per- 
mission. 

2. Use of Participials and Modes. 
Exercise I. 
T^TLet the pupil write ten sente?ices containing Infinitives 

using the Infinitive with another verb. 

Model. — He went to see his father. 

Remark. — After the active voice of behold, .bid, dare (to venture), do 
feel, find, have, hear, help, let, make, need, please and see, the to of the 
Infinitive is omitted. 

Exercise II. 
'Let the pupil write sentences containing these verbs. 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 49 

Exercise III. 

X^TLet the pupil write ten sentences containing Participles, 
using them with other verbs. 

Model. — Much depends on the doctor's coming. 
Exercise IV. 

^$T Let the pupil write ten sentences containing verbs in the 
Indicative Mode. 

'Model. — There is a pleasure in the pathless woods. 

Exercise V. 



'Let the pupil write te?i sentefices contaifiing verbs in the 
Potential Mode. 

Model. — The letter may yet be found. 
Exercise VI. 

I^Z^/ the pupil write ten se?itences containing verbs in the 
Subjunctive Mode. 

Model. — If this be treason, make the most of it. 

Exercise VII. 

ty 'Let the pupil write ten sente?ices containing verbs in the 
Requisitive Mode. 

Model, — I am to go on a visit to-morrow. 

Exercise VIII. 

, %W Let the pupil write ten sentences containing verbs in the 
Imperative Mode. 

Model. — Let there be light. 

Exercise IX. 

l3TLet the pupil write ten sentences, having two sentences in 
each mode. 
4 



50 THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. Recognition of the Properties of Verbs. 

Exercise I. 
\^Let the pupil select the verbs from the following sentences 
and extracts \ and give their voice, mode, tense, form, person 
and number : 

i. Fall he that must beneath his rival's arms, 
And live the rest secure of future harms. 

2. To be loved makes not to love again. 

3. True knowledge consists in knowing things. 

4. Were half the wealth bestowed on camps and courts 
Given to redeem the human mind from error, 
There were no need of arsenals and forts. 

5. He that studies English literature without the lights of 
classical learning, loses half the charms of its sentiment 
and style. 

6. The man had been waiting for a long time. 

7. For me, when I forget the darling theme, 
Whether the blossom blows, the Summer ray 
Russets the plain, inspiring Autumn gleams, 
Or winter rises in the blackening East, 

Be my tongue mute, my fancy paint no more, 
And dead to joy, forget my heart to beat, 
f S=man | (a)=The 

<[ ( (cop)— had been 

y ^ (att)=waiting | (v y =time | f a < =long 

Remark. — As Auxiliary verbs express relations of thought, they are to 
be classed with the copula. 

Exercise II. 

&y Let the pupil select all the verbs from his reading lesson, 
and tell their properties. Let this exercise be continued until 
pupils can readily distinguish each property of the verb. 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



51 



CHAPTER VII. 

Conjugation (Abwandlung). 
ACTIVE VOICE. 

I, PARTICIPIALS. 

1. Infinitives. 

Common Form. Progressive Form. 

Present : to freeze. to be freezing. 

Perfect : to have frozen. to have been freezing. 

2. Participles. 

Present .* freezing. 
Perfect ; having frozen. 

II. THE FINITE VERB. 
1. Indicative Mode. 
1. Present Tense. 

Progressive Form, 



Singular, 
ist Person. 
2d Person. 
$d Person. 
Plural, 
ist Person. 
2d Person. 
$d Person. 

Singular. 
ist Perso?i. 
2d Person. 
$d Person. 

Plural, 
jst Person. 
2d Person. 
$d Person. 



Singular. 
ist Person. 
2d Person. 
2>d Person. 



Common Form. 
I freeze. 
Thou freezest. 
He freezes. 



I am freezing. 
Thou art freezing. 
He is freezing. 



We freeze. We are freezing. 

You freeze. You are freezing. 

They freeze. They are freezing. 

2. Past Tense. 



I froze. 
Thou frozest. 
He froze. 

We froze. 
You froze. 
They froze. 

3. Future 

Common Form. 
I shall freeze. 
Thou wilt freeze. 
They will freeze. 



I was freezing. 
Thou wast freezing. 
He was freezing. 

We were freezing. 
You were freezing. 
They were freezing. 

Tense. 

Plural. 

We shall freeze. 
You will freeze. 
Pie will freeze. 



52 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Singular. Progressive Form, 

ist Person. I shall be freezing. 

2d Person. Thou wilt be freezing. 

$d Person. He will be freezing. 



Plural. 
We shall be freezing. 
You will be freezing. 
They will be freezing. 



4. Present Perfect Tense. 



Singular. 
ist Person. 
2d Person. 
$d Person. 
Plural. 
\st Person. 
2d Person. 
$d Perso?i. 

Singular.. 
ist Person. 
2d Person. 
3d Person. 
Plural. 
ist Person. 
2d Person. 
$d Person. 



I have frozen. 
Thou hast frozen. 
He has frozen. 



I have been freezing. 
Thou hast been freezing. 
He has been freezing. 



We have frozen. We have been freezing. 
You have frozen. You have been freezing. 
They have frozen. They have been freezing. 

5. Past Perfect Tense. 



I had frozen. 
Thou hadst frozen. 
He had frozen. 

We had frozen. 
You had frozen. 
They had frozen. 



I had been freezing. 
Thou hadst been freezing. 
He had been freezing. 

We had been freezing. 
You had been freezing. 
They had been freezing. 



6. Future Perfect Tense. 



Singular. 
1st Per. I shall have frozen. 
2d Per. Thou wilt have frozen. 
$d Per. He will have frozen. 

Plural. 
1st Per. We shall have frozen. 
2d Per. You will have frozen. 
$d ftr. They will have frozen. 



I shall have been freezing. 
Thou wilt have been freezing. 
He will have been freezing. 

We shall have been freezing. 
You will have been freezing. 
They will have been freezing. 



Emphatic Form. 
Present Tense. 



Singular. 

1st Person. I do freeze. 

2d Person. Thou dost freeze. 

2yd Person. He does freeze. 



Plural. 
We do freeze. 
You do freeze. 
They do freeze. 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



53 



i st Person. 
2d Person. 
3d Person. 



Singular. 
\st Person. 
2d Person. 
$d Person. 
Plural. 
ist Person. 
2d Person. 
$d Person. 



Past Tense. 

Singular. 

I did freeze. 
Thou didst freeze. 
He did freeze. 



Plural. 
We did freeze. 
You did freeze. 
They did freeze. 



II. Potential Mode. 



a. 



Present Tense {Independent). 
Common Form. 



I may freeze. 
Thou mayest freeze. 
He may freeze. 

We may freeze. 
You may freeze. 
They may freeze. 



I can freeze. 
Thou canst freeze. 
He can freeze. 

We ean freeze. 
You can freeze. 
They can freeze. 



Progressive Form. 



Singular. 

I may be freezing, 
liou mayest be freezing. 



i. 

2. Thou mayest ue iree, 

3. He may be freezing. 
Plural. 

1. We may be freezing. 

2. You may be freezing. 

3. They may be freezing. 

b. 



I can be freezing. 
Thou canst be freezing. 
He can be freezing. 

We can be freezing. 
You can be freezing. 
They can be freezing. 



Present Tense {Determined). 

Common Form. 

Singular. 

1. I might freeze. I could freeze. 

2. Thou mightest freeze. Thou couldst freeze. 

3. He might freeze. He could freeze. 
Plural. 

1. We might freeze 



2. You might freeze. 

3. They might freeze. 



We could freeze. 
You could freeze. 
Thev could freeze. 



54 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Progressive Form. 
Singular. 
i. I might be freezing. 

2. Thou mightest be freezing. 

3. He might be freezing. 
Plural. 

1. We might be freezing. 

2. You might be freezing. 

3. They might be freezing. 



I could be freezing. 
Thou couldst be freezing. 
He could be freezing. 

We could be freezing. 
You could be freezing. 
They could be freezing. 



a. Past Tense (Indepejident). 



I can have frozen. 
Thou canst have frozen. 
He can have frozen. 

We can have frozen. 
You can have frozen. 
They can have frozen. 



Common Form, 
Singular. 

1. I may have frozen. 

2. Thou mayest have frozen. 

3. He may have frozen. 
Plural. 

1. We may have frozen. 

2. You may have frozen. 

3. They may have frozen. 

Progressive Form. 
Singular. 
i. I may or can have been freezing. 

2. Thou mayest or canst have been freezing. 

3. He may or can have been freezing. 
Plural. 

1. We may or can have been freezing. 

2. You may or can have been freezing. 

3. They may or can have been freezing. 

b. Past Tense {Determined). 

Common Form. 
Singular. 

1. I might have frozen. 

2. . Thou mightest have frozen. 

3. He might have frozen. 
Plural. 

1. We might have frozen. 

2. You might have frozen. 

3. They might have frozen. 



I could have frozen. 
Thou couldst have frozen. 
He could have frozen. 

We could have frozen. 
You could have frozen. 
They could have frozen. 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



55 



Progressive Form. 
Singular. 

i. I might or could have been freezing. 

2. Thou mightest or couidst have been freezing. 

3. He might or could have been freezing. 

Plural. 

1. We might or could have been freezing. 

2. You might or could have been freezing. 

3. They might or could have been freezing. 



III. Subjunctive Mode. 
1. Present Tense. 



Common Form. 




Progressive Form. 


Singular. 

1. If I freeze. 

2. If thou freeze. 

3. If he freeze. 




If I be freezing. 
If thou be freezing. 
If he be freezing. 


Plural. 

1. If we freeze. 

2. If you freeze. 

3. If> they freeze. 




If we be freezing. 
If you be freezing. 
If they be freezing. 


Singular. 

1. If I froze. 

2. If thou frozest. 

3. If he froze. 
Plural. 


2. Past Tense. 

If I were freezing. 
If thou wert freezing. 
If he were freezing. 


1. If we froze. 

2. If you froze. 

3. If they froze. 




If we were freezing. 
If you were freezing. 
If they were freezing. 


2 


>. Future Tense. 




Common Form. 


Singular. 

1. If I should freeze. 

2. If thou shouldst freeze. 

3. If he shall or should freeze 


Plural. 
If we should freeze. 
If you should freeze. 
If they shall or should freeze. 



56 THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Progressive For??i. 
Singular. 

i. If I should be freezing. 

2. If thou shouldst be freezing. 

3. If he shall or should be freezing. 
Plural. 

1. If we should be freezing. 

2. If you should be freezing. 

3. If they shall or should be freezing. 

4. Present Perfect Tense. 





Common Form. 


I. 


Singular. Plural. 
If I have frozen. If we have frozen. 


2. 


If thou hast frozen. If you have frozen. 


3- 


If he has frozen. If they have frozen. 




Progressive Form. 


1. 

2. 


Singular. Plural. 
If I have been freezing. If we have been freezing. 
If thou hast been freezing. If you have been freezing. 


3- 


If he has been freezing. If they have been freezing 



5. Past Perfect Tense. 

Common Form. 
Singular. Plural. 

i. If I had frozen. If we had frozen. 

2. If thou hadst frozen. If you had frozen. 

3. If he had frozen. If they had frozen. 

Progressive Form. 
Singular. Plural. 

i. If I had been freezing. If we had been freezing. 

2. If thou hadst been freezing. If you had been freezing. 

3. If he had been freezing. If they had been freezing. 

6. Future Perfect Tense. 

Common Form. 

Singular. 

i. If I should have frozen. 

2. If thou shouldst have frozen. 

■?. If he shall or should have frozen. 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 57 

Plural. 

i. If we should have frozen. 

2. If you should have frozen. 

3. If they shall or should have frozen. 

Progressive For?n. 
Singtdar. 
i. If I should have been freezing. 

2. If thou shouldst have been freezing. 

3. If he shall or should have been freezing. 

Plural. 

1. If we should have been freezing. 

2. If you should have been freezing. 

3. If they shall or should have been freezing. 

IV. Requisitive Mode. 

1. Present Tense. 

Common Form. 
Singular. Necessity. Compulsion. 

1. I must freeze. I have to freeze. 

2. Thou must freeze. Thou hast to freeze. 

3. He must freeze. He has to freeze. 

Plural. 

1. We must freeze. We have to freeze. 

2. You must freeze. You have to freeze. 

3. They must freeze. They have to freeze. 

Obligation. 
Singular. 

1. I ought to freeze. I should freeze. 

2. Thou oughtest to freeze. Thou shouldst freeze. 

3. He ought to freeze. He should freeze. 

Plural. 

1. We ought to freeze. We should freeze. 

2. You ought to freeze. You should freeze. 

3. They ought to freeze. They should freeze. 

Progressive For?n. 
Singular. Necessity. Obligation. 

i. I must be freezing. I ought to be freezing. 

2, Thou must be freezing. Thou oughtest to be freezing. 

3. He mu-t be freezing. He ought to be freezing. 



58 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Plural. 

i. We must be freezing. 

2. You must be freezing. 

3. They must be freezing. 



We ought to be freezing. 
You ought to be freezing. 
They ought to be freezing. 



Singular. Compulsion. Plural. 

i. I have to be freezing. We have to be freezing. 

2. Thou hast to be freezing. You have to be freezing. 

3. He has to be freezing. They have to be freezing. 

2. Past Tense. 

Common Form. 

Singular. Necessity. Compulsion. 

i. I must have frozen. I had to freeze. 

2. Thou must have frozen. Thou hadst to freeze. 

3. He must have frozen. He had to freeze. 

Plural. 

1. We must have frozen. 

2. You must have frozen. 

3. They must have frozen. 

Singular. Obligation. 

1. I ought to have frozen. 

2. Thou oughtest to have frozen. 

3. He ought to have frozen. 



Plural. 



We ought to have frozen. 
You ought to have frozen. 
They ought to have frozen. 



We had to freeze. 
You had to freeze. 
They had to freeze. 

I should have frozen. 
Thou shouldst have frozen. 
He should have frozen. 

We should have frozen. 
You should have frozen. 
They should have frozen. 



Singular 



3 

Plural 



Progressive Form. 
Necessity. 
I must have been freezing. 
Thou must have been freezing. 
He must have been freezing. 

We must have been freezing. 
You must have been freezing. 
They must have been freezing. 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 59 

Singular. Obligation. 

i. I ought to have been freezing. 

2. Thou oughtest to have been freezing. 

3. He ought to have been freezing. 

Plural. 

1. We ought to have been freezing. 

2. You ought to have been freezing. 

3. They ought to have been freezing. 

Singular. Compulsion. Plural. 

i. I had to be freezing. We had to be freezing. 

2. Thou hadst to be freezing. You had to be freezing. 

3. He had to be freezing. They had to be freezing. 

3. Future Tense. 

Co?nnio?i Form. 
Singular. Necessity. Compulsion. 

1. I am to freeze. I shall have to freeze. 

2. Thou art to freeze. Thou shalt have to freeze. 

3. He is to freeze. He shall have to freeze. 

Plural. 

i. We are to freeze. We shall have to freeze. 

2. You are to freeze. You shall have to freeze. 

3. They are to freeze. They shall have to freeze. 

Progressive Form. 
Singular. Necessity. Plural. 

1. I am to be freezing. We are to be freezing. 

2. Thou art to be freezing. You are to be freezing. 

3. He is to be freezing. They are to be freezing. 

Singular. Compulsion. 

1. I shall have to be freezing. 

2. Thou shalt have to be freezing. 

3. He shall have to be freezing. 
Plural. 

1. We shall have to be freezing. 

2. You shall have to be freezing. 

3. They shall have to be freezing. 



60 THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

V. Imperative Mode. 

1. Present Tense. 

Common Form. Progressive Form. 

Singular. 

i. Let me freeze. Let me be freezing. 

2. Freeze thou. Be thou freezing. 

3. Let him freeze. Let him be freezing. 

Plural. 

1. Let us freeze. Let us be freezing. 

2. Freeze ye. Be ye freezing. 

3. Let them freeze. Let them be freezing. 

2. Future Tense. 

Common Form. 
Singular. 

1. I will freeze. 

2. Thou shalt freeze. Thou may est freeze. 

3. He shall freeze. He may freeze. 
Plural. 

1. We will freeze. 

2. You shall freeze. You may freeze. 

3. He shall freeze. They may freeze. 

Progressive Form. 
Singular. 

1. I will be freezing. 

2. Thou shalt be freezing. Thou mayest be freezing. 

3. He shall be freezing. He may be freezing. 
Plural. 

1. We will be freezing. 

2. You shall be freezing. You may be freezing- 

3. They shall be freezing. They may be freezing. 

PASSIVE VOICE. 

Voice is a property of transitive verbs, and hence transitive 
verbs only have forms to express voice. As the passive voice 
diners from the progressive form of the active voice only in 
the participle used, it is not necessary to repeat these forms 
here. Let the pupil be required to repeat the progressive form 
of the active voice, substituting the perfect participle wher- 
ever the present active participle is used, and he will have the 
corresponding forms of the passive voice. Thus : 

I am (freezing) frozen. Thou art (freezing) frozen, etc. 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 61 

CHAPTER VIII. 

Prepositions ( Verhaltnissw'drter). 
Exercise I. 
Let the following be written on the blackboard : 



Adverbs. 


Prepositions. 


i. The boy went up. 


The boy went up the hill. 


2. The child fell down. 


The child fell down the stairs, 


3. He rode by. 


He rode by the school. 


4. They went near. 


They went near the crater. 



5. He was laughed at. They laughed at him. 



'Such words as up, down, by, near, and at, when they 
are not followed by a noun or pronoun, are Adverbs. But 
when their application is limited through a noun or a pro- 
noun, as in the second column of sentences, they are said to 
be placed before such noun or pronoun to show some relation 
to what precedes. From the circumstance of their position, 
they are called Prepositions. Hence — 

Definition. — A word placed before a noun or a 
pronoun to show its relation to some preceding word, 
is called a Preposition. 

Exercise II. 

§y Let the pupil write sentences containing the following 
Simple Prepositions : 

At, after, by, down, for, from, in, of, on, over, past, round, 
since, through, till, to, under, up, and with. 

Model. — The news comes from the North. 



62 THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Exercise III. 
I3F" Let the pupil write se?itences containing the following 
Compound Prepositions : 

a. Abaft, aboard, about, above, across, against, along, amid, 

amidst, among, amongst, around, athwart. 

b. Before, behind, below, beneath, beside, besides, between, 

betwixt, beyond. 

c. Into, unto, upon, within, without. 

d. Out of, throughout, toward, towards, underneath, until. 

Remark. — Such words as but, except, save, concerning, during, regard- 
ing, and respecting, are sometimes used as Prepositions. 

Exercise IV. 

|y Let the following sentences be written 071 the blackboard : 

i. Washington was a man of integrity. 

2. The man at the helm is sleeping. 

3. The gentleman from Missouri has the floor. 

4. The boy without arms could sew with his feet. 

5. David was a man after God's own heart. 

6. The banquet was fit for a king. 

7. The boy stood on the burning deck 
Whence all but him had fled. 

(^"Sometimes the Preposition with the words following it 
limits a noun or a pronoun, in which case the Preposition 
with its dependent words constitute what is usually called an 
adjective element of the second class, the symbol of which is a 2 . 

S f S=Washington 
' C (cop)=was 

S (_ ( (att)=man ( (a 2 )=of integrity. 

I^p 3 Let the pupil write the analysis of all the sentences in 
Exercise IV, except the 7th. 
Remark. — S D S means Simple Declarative Sentence. 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



63 



Exercise V. 
JSP 3 Let the following sentences be written on the blackboard; 
i. The anchor clung to the rock with tenacity. 
I kept my eye upon the receding mass of ice. 
We ran to the dark spot in the centre of the mass. 
A movement of the tide set the ice in motion. 
Thou hast kept thy word with me to the last moment. 
3 Whenever the Preposition with its dependent noun or 
pronoun expresses place, iiine, cause, manner, or degree, it con- 
stitutes what is called an adverbial eleme?it of the second class, 
the symbol of which is v 2 . 

s fs=i 

f (o)=eye | (a)=my 



D 



P-kentJ C(a)=the 

r — Kept < , 2 v — 1 , >i_ r p r . 



(v 2 )=upon mass < (a )=receding 
(a 2 )=of ice. 



S 

ty Diagram all the remaining sentences in Exercise V. 

Exercise VI. 
§3TLet the pupil select the Prepositions from the following 
sentences ■, and diagram the7?i according to the precedifig models ; 
i. I armed myself from head to foot against the inroads 
of the cold. 

2. The old oak is loaded with a flock of singing blackbirds. 

3. The old Indian fell dead at the feet of the white woman 

by a blow of the tomahawk. 

4. I sent him a note by a messenger on Monday. 

5. The muse, on eagle-pinions borne, 
Attempted through the summer-blaze to rise ; 
Then swept o'er autumn with the shadowy gale. 

Exercise VII. 
X^Let the pupil select the Prepositions from his reading les- 
son, and diagram simple sentences. 



64 



THIRD CIRCLE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



CHAPTER IX. 
Conjunctions (Bindewdrter). 
Exercise I. 
§3TLel the following sentences be written on the blackboard: 
i. John and Mary write. 

2. Mary plays and sings. 

3. Wise and good men die. 

4. John speaks eloquently and correctly. 

5. George went to Boston or New York. 

Remark. — In examining the above sentences we find that and in every 
instance connects words which have a common relation to some other 
word. Such words as and are called Conjunctions. Hence — 

Definition. — A Conjunction is a word which 
joins words having a common relation to some other 

word. 

Exercise. II. 

fEp 3 Let the pupil write sentences containing the following 
Co-ordinate Conjunctions : 

And, also, as well as; but; either, or; neither, nor. 
Exercise III. 

|£y Let the pupil write sentences containing the following 
Subordinate Conjunctions : 

But, whether; if, unless, except; though, although; as, 
because, since, hence, therefore. 

Exercise IV. 
|y Let pupils select all the Conjunctions from their reading 
lessons, and tell whether they are Co-ordinate or Subordinate. 

REMARK. — Conjunctive Pronouns, Conjunctive Adverbs, and Interro- 
gative words can be treated properly only in connection with elements of 
the third class. 



